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HOMES  FOQ 
WORKMEN 


A Presentation  of  Leading 
Examples  of  Industrial 
Community  Development 


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STREET  SCENES  AND  TYPES  OE  HOMES  IN  KAETLTON,  ALABA^IA,  A SOUTHERN 

PINE  MANUFACTURING  VILLAGE 


A Prexerrldiion  or  Ledditi9A 
Example/ of  Indu/iricjl  G>mmumfy 
/O^evelopmenl 


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PUDLIi'HED  DY 

The  v5outher.n  Pine  Ajxociation 

NEW  OR.LEANJ'  LA 


Copyright,  1019,  by 

'I'HE  SOUTHERN  PINE  ASSOCTATION 
New  Orleans,  La. 


PRICE  FIVE  DOLLARS 


INTRODUCTION 


The  purpose  of  this  publication  is  to  present  certain  general  and 
specific  facts  concerning  industrial  housing  which  may  be  of  value  in 
directing  those  interested  in  arriving  at  correct  conclusions  as  to  how  best 
to  solve  this  problem  in  their  own  communities. 


DIFFICULT  though  insistent  problem  confronting  industry  today  is 
that  of  providing  proper  living  conditions  for  workmen  and  their  families, 
to  insure  the  adequacy,  stability  and  efficiency  of  labor.  At  hundreds  of 
places  there  is  need  for  more  houses  and  better  houses.  In  some  centers 
where  abnormal  development  has  taken  place  the  housing  shortage  is  so 
acute  that  factory  output  cannot  be  brought  up  to  the  required  volume. 
Community  housing  enterprises,  undertaken  along  proper  lines,  will  avoid  the  methods  of 
speculative  builders,  and  will  not  find  their  incentive  in  the  earning  of  large  dividends  and 
profits  to  investors.  While  industrial  housing  projects  should,  and  will  if  properly  managed, 
yield  a return  on  the  investment,  those  financing  housing  companies  will  derive  their  principal 
gain  indirectly  through  general  community  betterment,  which  has  a distinct  and  tangible 
value.  The  manufacturer  will,  of  course,  be  the  principal  beneficiary,  and  will  accordingly 
bear  the  greater  part  of  the  housing  burden,  if  there  must  be  a burden.  While  the  benefits 
to  the  manufacturer  are  quite  generally  recognized,  the  community  benefits  derived  from  a 
well-housed  and,  therefore,  contented  and  self-respecting  labor  element,  have  rarely  been 
given  proper  consideration  in  this  country.  An  established  industrial  community  can  have 
no  better  asset  than  an  adequate  supply  of  well-built,  attractive  homes,  for  the  reason  that 
it  is  to  that  town  or  city  in  which  the  labor  supply  is  stable,  and  its  standards  of  morality 
and  industry  in  consec|uence  high,  that  the  manufacturer  seeking  industrial  location  in- 
stinctively turns.  Everywhere  that  a properly  conceived  housing  program  has  been  put  into 
effect  in  a manufacturing  community  it  has  been  attended  by  an  increase  in  the  prosperity 
of  all  the  mercantile  and  financial,  as  well  as  the  manufacturing  elements  of  the  community, 
and  also  an  advance  in  educational  and  moral  standards. 

No  attempt  is  made  in  this  preface  to  discuss  the  many  complex  elements  of  industrial 
housing.  The  financial  and  other  problems  involved  are  considered  by  well-known  authorities 
in  special  articles  appearing  in  the  following  pages  of  this  book. 


SOUTHERN  PINE  ASSOCIATION 


CONTENTS 


Page 

'I’he  Industrial  \dllage i 

Kaulton,  Alabama 9 

Kaulton  from  an  Investment  Standi)oint 16 

How  Shall  We  Provide  Hood  Houses  For  Alb" 17 

Hay  view,  Alabama 25 

Planning  and  Financing  the  Industrial  Housing  Project 27 

Housing  by  Fmjrloyers  in  the  United  States 39 

Idiion  Park  Gardens 49 

Hilton,  Virginia,  a Governmentd)uilt  War  Ifmergency  Town 53 

Housing  and  the  Land  Problem 61 

Fdipse  Park,  Beloit,  Wisconsin 69 

Xitro,  West  Virginia 79 

'Phe  Best  House  for  the  Small  Wage  Earner 88 

National  Americanization  Committee  Housing  Competition 93 

Methods  of  Economy  in  Flousing  Construction 97 

h'airlicld,  Alabama 103 

Housing  'Pypes  for  Workmen  in  America iii 

Indian  Hill 117 

Giving  the  W orkman  an  Oj)portunity  for  Home  Ownership 124 

Bristol,  Pennsylvania 126 

'Phe  Government’s  Advice  on  Selecting  Industrial  Housing  Sites 131 

Housing  Railroad  Employees  at  Erwin,  Tennessee 135 

Bunk  Houses,  Boarding  Houses  and  Labor  Camps 140 

Flint,  Michigan 143 

Modern  labor  camps  on  the  Eaton  Flood  Prevention  Project 149 

Co-partnership  Housing  in  England 155 

Danielson,  Connecticut 165 

Housing  by  the  Commonwealth  of  Massachusetts 174 

How  Kenosha  Grappled  with  its  Housing  Shortage 179 

Alton,  Illinois 183 

A Modern  Industrial  Housing  Development  at  Perryville,  Maryland 188 

Middletown.  ( )hio 197 

Eirestone  Park,  Akron.  Ohio 199 

Derby,  Connecticut 203 

Endee  Manor,  Bristol,  Connecticut 207 

Building  Eire-safe  Frame  Dwellings 209 

ddie  Choice  of  Building  Vlaterials  for  Industrial  Homes 228 

School  Houses  Suitable  for  an  Industrial  \ illage 233 

Pascagoula,  Mississippi 239 

St.  Albans,  W’est  \drginia 240 

Broader  Economy  in  the  Maintenance  of  an  Industrial  Village 241 

W hat'  Bad  Housing  IMeans  to  the  Community 245 

Standard  Reference  Works  on  Industrial  Housing 250 


THE  INDUSTRL^L  VILLAGE 

By  JOHN  NOLEN 

Town  and  City  Planner,  Cambridge,  Mass. 


The  problem  of  industrial  housing  in  its 
broader  phases  may  perhaps  be  best 
expressed  by  the  term  “community 
development.”  It  calls  for  the  creation  of  a 
cofyiplete  industrial  town  or  village.  It  cannot  be 
solved  by  the  mere  building  of  houses,  even 
though  they  be  of  good  types.  From  the  first 
step  to  the  last,  the  solution  of  these  problems 
requires  not  only  common  sense,  but  special  skill 
and  experience.  Furthermore,  the  problems  of 
industrial  housing  are  related  to  the  still  wider 
and  more  technical  problems  of  town  planning, 
town  building,  and  the  proper  maintenance  of 
the  houses  and  the  efficient  administration  of 
the  town  of  which  they  form  an  essential  part. 

Fundamental  Questions 

The  fundamental  questions  which  should  be 
asked  in  the  planning  of  an  industrial  suburb 
or  village  are  the  following: 

I.  What  should  determine  the  selection  of  a 
tract  of  land  for  an  industrial  village  develop- 
ment? 

2.  What  size  tract  is  necessary,  or  at  any 
rate  desirable? 

3.  How  important  is  the  relation  of  the  tract 
to  the  plan  of  the  city,  its  business  and  amuse- 
ment centers,  its  transportation  routes,  the 
location  of  factories,  etc.? 

4.  What  general  principles  should  control 
the  division  of  the  property  into  zones, — that 
is,  the  selection  of  areas  for  industrial  and  rail- 
road development,  for  open  spaces,  parks  and 
public  reservations,  stores  and  shops,  public 
building  sites,  homes,  etc.? 

5.  What  determines  the  location  of  streets? 

6.  What  are  the  best  sizes  and  shapes  of 
blocks  and  lots? 

7.  Which  are  the  most  desirable  house 
types? 


8.  Should  the  tract  be  designed  so  as  to  be 
convertible, — that  is,  adaptable  to  a use  other 
than  that  for  which  the  plan  was  made? 

9.  Are  the  houses  to  be  rented  or  sold? 

10.  What  provision  is  to  be  made  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  property? 

Selection  of  Land 

The  first  step,  namely,  the  proper  selection  of 
a site  for  an  industrial  village,  is  one  that  is 
often  taken  without  due  regard  to  the  final 
purpose  of  the  development  and  consideration 
of  its  relation  to  the  steps  which  must  follow. 
The  skill  and  experience  which  are  of  service 
in  the  laying  out  of  the  property  would  be 
of  even  greater  service  if  employed  in  time  to 
have  a part  in  the  selection  of  the  land.  There- 
fore, would  it  not  be  well  to  engage  your  expert 
first?  Also,  to  keep  secret  the  preference  for 
land  until  an  option  is  obtained?  Otherwise, 
you  must  pay  the  speculator  a bonus. 

In  selecting  land  for  industrial  housing,  the 
points  of  greatest  importance  are  as  follows: 

Location.  Usually  it  should  be  suburban 
or  out  of  town,  or  actually  in  the  open  country. 
It  is  an  advantage  if  the  section  is  within  walk- 
ing distance,  say,  fifteen  minutes,  of  the  fac- 
tories, which  in  many  cases  should  themselves 
be  moved  to  an  out-of-town  location. 

Cost.  The  value  of  the  raw  land,  unim- 
proved, should  be  low  — for  unskilled  workers, 
$500  an  acre  or  less;  for  skilled  workers  about 
$1,000  an  acre.  The  public  utilities,  sewer, 
water,  sidewalk,  curbing  and  the  rough  grading 
of  the  streets  vary  in  cost  in  different  places 
and  at  different  times.  Conservative  figures  for 
these  utilities  for  detached  houses  are  $2,000 
per  acre,  and  for  attached  houses,  or  houses  of 
more  than  twO'  in  a single  group  or  row,  $2,500 
per  acre. 


I 


2 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


Size  of  Tract.  In  order  to  provide  for  a 
conijilete  local  community  gi\  ing  the  necessary 
streets,  ojien  spaces,  stores  and  shojis,  public 
building  sites,  amusements  and  the  other  fea- 
tures of  neighborhood  life;  also  to  take  care  of 
the  cost  of  the  indis])ensable  utilities,  such  as 
water  supply,  sewage  dis])osal,  etc.,  the  tract 
should  be  usually  not  less  than  one  hundred 
acres.  Two  hundred  acres  is  even  better.  Fifty 
acres  should  be  considered  a minimum  for  a 
comi)lete  develojiment.  In  some  cases  a thou- 
sand acres  would  not  be  too  much. 

Boundaries.  The  boundaries  in  the  case  of  a 
tract  with  a strongly  marked  character  should 
usually  follow  the  tojiographical  features.  Un- 
less streams  or  water  courses  are  wide,  both 
sides  should  be  included.  So  also  with  main 
streets.  If  they  are  located  on  the  boundary  of 
the  property,  the  development  should  include 
both  sides  of  the  streets  and  the  boundary  of 
the  tract  run  to  the  back  line  of  the  surrounding 
lots. 

Topography,  d'he  topographical  character 
of  the  land  is  likewise  of  great  im])ortance  in  the 
choice  of  a site.  If  it  is  too  flat,  the  result  is  apt 
to  be  monotonous  and  even  ill  drained.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  it  is  too  broken  or  steep,  the 
development  is  inconvenient  and  costly.  A 
slightly  undulating  or  rolling  topogra])hy  is 
on  the  whole  best  for  all  purjioses.  Woods  or 
single  trees  enhance  the  value  and  attractive- 
ness of  the  property,  and  should  be  carefully 
preserved  wherever  possible.  Furthermore, 
land  which  is  very  flat  can  often  be  better  used 
for  factories,  and  land  which  is  very  broken  is 
well  suited  for  parks  and  public  reservations. 
Marsh  land,  if  it  is  to  be  used,  is  also  apt  to  be 
more  desirable,  when  reclaimed,  for  factories 
or  parks  rather  than  homes. 

Laying  Out  the  Tract 

Streets  and  Roads.  In  making  a plan  for  a 
village,  the  first  step  usually,  after  the  choice 
of  the  tract  and  the  preparation  of  the  survey, 
is  to  study  the  property  with  a view  to  the 
location  of  streets  and  roads.  Although  a good 
street  system  is  of  primary  importance  to  con- 
venience and  economy,  its  establishment  has 


not  usually  been  presumed  to  involve  any  spe- 
cial knowledge  or  skill  beyond  that  of  the  sur- 
veyor, nor  of  any  different  point  of  view  from 
that  of  the  real  estate  operator.  Most  of  such 
planning  in  the  United  States  has  been  under- 
taken from  the  jiroprietary  standpoint.  It  has 
been  done  for  the  owners  of  the  land,  and 
largely  with  a view  to  early  and  profitable  sales. 
The  im]X)rtance  of  the  street  rests  in  the  fact 
that  it  is  the  channel  of  all  the  ordinary  means  of 
public  circulation  and  public  service;  that  it  is 
essential  to  the  profitable  development  and  use 
of  pro])erty;  that  only  through  the  opportunities 
it  offers  can  there  be  any  broad  or  attractive 
expression  of  community  life;  and  that  only 
through  a comprehensive,  well  ordered  system 
of  main  streets  and  roads  can  the  functions  of 
the  town  or  ^’illage  be  performed  with  economy 
and  efficiency. 

Every  decision  with  regard  to  the  street  is 
important,  - its  location,  its  width,  its  direc- 
tion, its  subdivision,  its  grade,  its  planting,  its 
lighting,  etc.  Mdth  few  exceptions  these  de- 
cisions concern  the  general  iiublic  far  more 
than  individuals  or  groups  of  individuals  who 
happen  to  reside  or  own  property  on  the  par- 
ticular street  under  consideration.  Streets 
should  connect  as  directly  as  possible  the  main 
jioints  of  a town,  d'hey  should  take  people 
where  they  want  to  go.  Difi'erent  streets  have 
different  functions,  and  practically  every  street 
is  related,  or  should  be,  to  some  other  street. 
These  varying  functions  require  varying  treat- 
ment, especially  with  regard  to  street  widths. 
In  most  communities  the  area  giA’en  up  to 
streets  is  ample,  but  its  distribution  has  been 
arbitrary  and  accidental. 

Local  Streets  and  Alleys 

d’he  recjuirements  of  local  streets,  in  which 
classification  most  village  streets  are  included, 
are  different  from  main  thoroughfares,  or  even 
secondary  streets.  The  local  street  should  not 
be  broad,  and  to  make  it  so  incurs  needless  ex- 
pense for  grading  and  paving  as  well  as  waste 
of  land.  If  the  local  street  is  narrow  it  keeps 
traffic  off  and  it  acquires  a quality  more  dis- 
tinctly domestic.  It  is  cosier,  quieter  and  more 


3 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


attractive.  There  are  many  good  examples  of 
local  streets  laid  out  with  a total  width  between 
property  lines  of  40  feet  or  even  less,  the  road- 
way itself  being  not  more  than  from  18  to  24 
feet,  which  is  ample.  The  popular  danger  is 
streets  of  greater  width  than  necessary,  espe- 
cially the  paved  roadway. 

In  planning  the  street  system  opportunity 
should  be  sought  for  creating  minor  public  open 
spaces  and  appropriate  sites  for  public  and  semi- 
public buildings.  The  selection  and  planning 
of  such  features,  or  planning  with  a view  to  their 
establishment  in  the  future,  should  be  part  of 
the  study  of  the  street  plan.  Both  the  con- 
venience and  the  effect  of  public  buildings  are 
largely  lost  without  suitable  approaches,  giving 
advantageous  view  points. 

Alleys.  What  about  the  alley?  The  alley, 
except  where  more  than  two  houses  are  built 
attached  side  by  side,  is  unnecessary,  wasteful, 
inexcusable.  There  is  no  reason  justifying  the 
back  alley  for  detached  or  semi-detached  houses. 
The  possible  need  for  the  alley  begins  only  when 
three  or  more  houses  are  constructed  as  a group. 
Primarily  the  problem  is,  how  can  the  house- 
holder handle  the  garbage  and  ashes  and  other 
waste  material  of  the  house  so  that  they  can  be 
removed  in  a convenient  and  sanitary  way 
from  the  premises.  One  method,  of  course,  and 
one  widely  used  in  the  United  States  notwith- 
standing the  fact  that  few  cities  have  row 
houses,  is  the  back  alley.  The  objections  to  it 
are,  hrst,  the  cost  in  land,  then  the  cost  of  a 
suitable  pavement,  and  finally,  the  difficulty 
as  well  as  cost  of  maintenance,  cleaning,  light- 
ing and  policing.  Unless  provision  is  made  for 
public  or  other  guaranteed  maintenance,  the 
alley,  no  matter  by  what  name  it  is  called,  is 
almost  certain  to  become  a nuisance,  and  should 
not  be  included  in  the  laying-out  of  industrial 
villages.  Its  dangers  to  health  and  morals  are 
too  great. 

What  are  the  alternatives?  One,  of  course,  is 
to  ignore  the  necessity  for  service  arrangements 
altogether,  and  trust  to  the  householder  to 
work  out  somehow,  through  the  cellar  window 
or  otherwise,  the  regular  removal  of  garbage, 
ashes,  and  other  forms  of  waste.  This  arrange- 


ment, or  rather  lack  of  arrangement,  is  if  any- 
thing more  inconvenient  than  the  alley,  and 
almost  equally  unsatisfactory,  although  in 
different  ways.  So  obvious  and  unescapable  and 
regular  a requirement  should  be  met  in  some 
regular,  businesslike  fashion. 

The  other  alternative,  which  perhaps  is 
generally  the  best  solution,  is  to  jirovide  for 
some  suitable  passage  through  or  under  every 
house  or  between  every  two  houses.  This  may 
be  done  by  a narrow  archway  on  the  level  of 
the  street,  or  on  the  grade  of  the  cellar  floor 
(reached  by  steps).  There  are  some  objections 
to  this  method,  but  they  can  be  overcome  to  a 
considerable  extent  by  careful  planning.  If 
each  house  is  to  be  provided  with  its  individual 
arrangement  for  service,  it  can  best  be  done  by  a 
door  from  the  front  of  the  house  leading  directly 
into  the  cellar. 

The  merits  of  these  different  methods  depend 
to  a large  extent  upon  their  cost,  the  archi- 
tecture of  the  houses,  and  the  way  in  which  the 
service  arrangements  are  worked  out.  In  fair- 
ness to  the  back  alley,  it  should  be  stated  that 
when  properly  laid  out  and  constructed  and 
publicly  maintained,  it  has  advantages  which 
the  other  methods  do  not  possess.  In  the  first 
place  it  permits  of  the  collection  of  wastes  from 
the  rear  of  houses  instead  of  on  the  front  streets, 
where  they  are  for  a short  time  more  or  less  un- 
sightly, and  secondly,  it  provides  a convenient 
and  in  some  instances  an  appropriate  location 
for  underground  pipes,  sewer,  water,  etc.,  and 
for  poles  and  overhead  wires.  We  may  soon 
have  to  add  a third  — viz.,  access  to  a private 
garage  on  the  rear  of  the  lot.  These  advantages, 
however,  are  usually  more  than  out-weighed 
by  the  disadvantages,  especially  with  the  low 
public  and  private  standards  that  now  prevail 
in  many  industrial  villages  and  the  almost  in- 
superable difficulties  of  proper  maintenance. 

Sizes  and  Shapes  of  Blocks 
and  Lots 

The  size,  shape  and  proportion  of  blocks  are 
of  great  importance,  especially  from  the  eco- 
nomic point  of  view,  and  are  controlled,  of 


4 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


course,  mainly  by  the  location  of  streets  and 
roads.  Some  variety  in  the  sha])e  and  size  of 
blocks  is  desirable,  and  often  economic.  It  is 
jn-eferable,  however,  to  keep  them  fairly 
near  to  a rectangular  shape,  avoiding  shar]) 
angles.  The  depth  of  the  block  intended 
to  house  industrial  workers  should  seldom  be 
more  than  200  feet,  and  the  maximum  desirable 
length  is  between  500  and  800  feet. 

ddiere  is  a decided  ach  antage  in  east  and  west 
frontages  for  houses,  especially  in  closely  built 
sections.  This  a])plies,  however,  to  northern 
climates  only. 

4'he  size,  shape  and  ])ro])ortion  of  lots  are,  of 
course,  dependent  largely  upon  the  size,  shapes 
and  pro])ortions  of  blocks.  Here  again,  within 
limits,  variety  and  differences  are  desirable, 
thus  supplying  different  demands.  A fair 
minimum  for  lot  widths  would  be  15  or  16  feet 
for  group  dwellings,  25  to  30  feet  for  semi- 
detached dwellings  (each  unit),  and  40  to  50 
feet  for  detached  dwellings.  The  depth  of  lots 
in  these  classes  should  range  from  about  80  to 
100  feet.  There  is  a direct  relation  between 
size  of  lots  and  the  utilization  of  a portion  of  the 
interior  of  blocks  for  ])laygrounds,  allotment 
gardens  or  neighborhood  ])arks.  This  relation 
should  be  kept  in  mind  in  any  attemjH  to  esti- 
mate the  justification  or  value  of  one  or  the 
other.  If  the  layout  provides  for  individual 
backyards  or  gardens,  interior  block  oiien  spaces 
are  ob\’iously  more  difficult  to  obtain.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  the  individual  lots  are  shallow, 
merely  a drying  yard,  there  is  a better  opportu- 
nity to  pro\’ide  for  a common  playground  or 
garden  in  the  middle  of  the  block. 

H ouse  Types 

No  one  house  or  method  should  be  endorsed 
as  the  only  one,  although  the  emphasis  should 
be  put  upon  the  single  family,  self-contained, 
detached  house  or  cottage,  as  on  the  whole  most 
desirable.  The  choice  of  the  house  tjpe  depends 
upon  (a)  land  values;  (b)  wages;  (c)  custom; 
(d)  demand;  (e)  whether  houses  are  for  rent  or 
sale. 

The  types  recommended  should  have  some 
advantages  of  house  construction  or  of  lower 


land  cost,  and  take  into  account  the  fact  that 
different  people  have  different  tastes  and  prefer- 
ences, as  well  as  different  needs  in  housing,  as 
in  other  matters.  What  is  best  depends  upon 
local  conditions  and  circumstances  and  cost. 
The  group  or  row  house,  however,  should  not  be 
more  than  two  rooms  deep.  This  is  of  funda- 
mental imj^ortance. 

The  schedule  given  below  shows  the  relation 
of  the  cost  ol  lots  and  houses  to  wages  and  rent. 
Workingmen  in  normal  times  receive  approxi- 
mately from  $15  or  $16  to  $25  or  $30  a week. 
It  is  usually  acce])ted  that  they  can  afford  to 
pay  from  one-fifth  to  one-fourth  their  wages  in 
rent,  or,  as  it  is  often  stated,  a week’s  wages  for 
a month’s  rent.  If  they  receive,  say,  $15  a 
week,  and  we  assume  that  they  can  afford  to 
pay  $15  a month  rent,  the  total  investment  in 
house  and  lot  should  not  exceed  $2,000.  This 
allows  about  $400  for  an  improved  lot  (say,  40 
ft.  in  width)  and  $1,600  for  the  building.  If 
regular  savings  are  to  be  made  toward  the  pur- 
chase of  the  house,  the  wages  should  average 
higher  than  the  figure  quoted.  The  investment 
would  thus  yield  annually  the  usual  10  per  cent 
gross  or  from  5 per  cent  to  6 per  cent  net,  accord- 
ing to  local  conditions,  taxes,  cost  of  upkeep, 
etc.  The  same  comparisons  can  be  made  with 
the  other  classes  shown  on  the  schedule,  receiv- 
ing wages  of  $20,  $25,  or  $30  a week  or  inter- 
mediate amounts. 

This  schedule  is  based  upon  a minimum 
annual  wage  of  $800.  Bulletin  No.  76,  Treasury 
Department,  United  States  Public  Health  Ser- 
vice, makes  the  following  statement: 

“Several  studies  by  various  authorities  on 
actual  conditions  in  workingmen’s  families 
tend  to  agree  very  closely  that  unless  a 
family  of  the  average  size  (father,  mother, 
and  three  dependent  children)  has  an  annual 
income  of  $800  or  more,  it  cannot  maintain 
a healthful  standard.  This  conclusion  is 
apparently  confirmed  by  statistics  of  ex- 
penditures in  workingmen’s  families  which 
show  that  the  point  of  adequate  subsistence 
is  not  reached  until  the  family  income  is 
approximately  $800  or  more.” 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


5 


General  Schedule  Showing  Relation 
of  the  Cost  of  Lots  and  Houses 
to  Wages,  Rent,  and  Savings 


Lot  — Improved 

$400 . 

$500. 

$600. 

$700 

House 

1600. 

2000. 

2400. 

2800 

Total  House  and  Lot  . 

2000. 

2500. 

3000 . 

3500 

Wages 

Per  week 

$15. 

$20. 

$25. 

$30 

Per  year  

800. 

1040 . 

1300. 

1560 

Rent 

Per  month 

15- 

20 . 

25- 

30 

Minimum  Lot  and  House  for  Normal  Family 
Minimum  Lot. 

Terrace  row  (not  more 

than  two  rooms  deep)  i5'-i6'  wide  8o'-ioo'  deep 
Semi-detached  (each 


lot) 3o'-4o' wide  po'-ioo' deep 

Detached 4o'-5o'  wide  ioo'-i25'  deep 


Minimum  House. 

4 rooms,  Parlor,  Kitchen,  two  Bedrooms  and  Bath. 

5 rooms  preferred.  Parlor,  Kitchen,  three  Bedrooms 
and  Bath ; three  bedrooms  allow  for  separate  rooms 
for  older  children  of  different  sexes. 

Houses  per  Acre 

It  is  not  practicable  to  fix  any  absolute  limit 
to  the  number  of  houses  to  the  acre.  Very 
much  depends  upon  the  sizes  of  the  houses  and 
their  arrangement,  as  well  as  upon  the  economic 
necessity  when  land  values  are  high.  Further- 
more, it  is  not  easy  to  weigh  the  disadvantages 
that  might  arise  from  enlarging  cities  to  such 
an  extent  as  would  give  a much  lower  number 
of  houses  to  the  acre.  One  may  safely  say,  how- 
ever, that  the  desirable  maximum  would  be 
between  ten  and  twelve  houses  to  the  gross 
acre.’  This  figure  has  been  fairly  well  tested  in 
the  garden  villages  of  England,  as  well  as  in 
this  country.  For  houses  built  in  rows  or  short 
groups,  the  density,  even  where  land  values  are 
extraordinarily  high,  should  seldom  exceed 
eighteen  houses  to  the  gross  acre.  A reasonable 
density  for  detached  houses  is  from  five  to 
seven  houses  to  the  gross  acre. 

Cost  of  Development 

While  figures  as  to  costs  are  always  unsatis- 
factory, varying  as  they  do  in  different  parts 
of  the  country  and  at  different  times,  and  with 
different  topographical  conditions,  still  the 


following  statement  of  the  actual  costs  for 
development  per  acre,  taken  from  the  figures  of 
a development  at  Akron,  Ohio,  in  September, 
1916,  may  prove  helpful  as  affording  some 
approach  to  what  may  be  considered  a normal 
standard. 


Cost  per  Acre  for  Development 


Sewer 

Water 

Sidewalk 

Rough  grading  streets  and 
curbing 

Per 

Lineal  Foot 

$ .50 
1-25 
. 60 

1.65 

House 

Connections 

$28 . 00 
18.00 

$4 . 00 

$46 . 00 

Terrace  Row  Type. 

House  on  15  ft.  lot  at  $4.00  . . 
House  connections 

60 . 00 

46 . 00 

Per  Acre 

16  Houses  per  gross  acre  at. 

$106 . 00 

$1,696.00 

Detached  House  Type. 
House  on  40  ft.  lot  at  $4.00. . . 
House  connections 

$160 . 00 
46.00 

6 Houses  per  gross  acre  at . . 

$206 . 00 

$1,236.00 

(Depth  of  lot  assumed  to  be  about  100  ft.) 

Building  Districts  and 
Development 

Districting  or  zoning  is,  after  all,  little  more 
than  an  extension  and  a wider  application  by 
public  authorities  of  the  principle  of  restrictions. 
This  principle  is  well  understood,  and  has  long 
been  used  by  the  private  owners  of  property, 
and  to  some  extent  by  the  public  authorities. 
It  is  a principle  that  is  particularly  well  under- 
stood in  the  United  States  by  real  estate  opera- 
tors. The  restrictions  placed  upon  the  purchaser 
in  the  conveyance  of  property  often  include  a 
long  list  of  the  kinds  of  business  which  are 
classified  as  nuisances,  such  as  keeping  chickens, 
pigs  or  cows,  and  which  may  not  be  established 
or  maintained  upon  the  propert}x  These  re- 
strictions also  include  regulation  as  to  stables 
and  garages,  fences  and  walls,  setback  of 
buildings  from  the  street  and  from  lot  lines,  the 
minimum  cost  of  buildings,  easements  and 
rights  of  way  for  public  utilities,  and  in  some 
cases  even  the  a]iproval  of  house  plans  and 
specifications.  The  jioint  of  view  with  regard 


6 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


lo  these  restrictions  is  indicated  ])y  the  fact 
that  the  real  estate  operator  now  often  refers  to 
them  as  “safeguards.” 

It  has  become  evident,  however,  that  we  can- 
not de]:>end  upon  i)rivate  restrictions  in  deeds 
ini]:)Osed  by  the  land  owner.  At  best  his  action 
is  a]')plied  only  to  very  limited  areas,  and  often 
when  most  i)ublic  s])irited,  is  not  always  intel- 
ligent. Flis  chief  motive  must  be  j^rolit.  He 
cannot  be  e.xpected  to  have  consistent  and 
permanent  concern  for  the  results  of  his  meth- 
ods upon  the  future  occupants  of  the  property, 
nor  upon  the  general  public.  I'hirthermore,  no 
matter  how  large  his  holdings,  he  has  only  the 
legal  power  of  a private  citizen. 

A Front  Set-back 

One  of  the  most  approved  forms  of  restric- 
tions is  that  of  a building  line  establishing  the 
set-back  for  the  buildings  from  the  street.  In 
some  places  this  set-back  is  considered  a part 
of  the  street  and  ])ublicly  owned.  In  others  it  is 
restricted  private  ])roperty.  The  width  of  this 
strip  ranges  from  ten  to  twenty-live  feet,  or 
more.  If  too  deep,  it  would  be  wasteful  and  out 
of  lu'oportion  to  the  size  of  the  lot.  It  would 
also  make  service  connections  with  the  house 
expensive.  It  appears  to  be  generally  agreed 
that  this  building  set-back  should  not  be  uni- 
form through  the  property,  but  should  vary  in 
relation  to  the  width  of  the  streets  and  the 
depth  of  lots.  Sometimes  it  should  vary  on 
the  frontage  of  a single  block,  gi\'ing  different 
set-back  to  the  houses,  and  increasing  the  inter- 
est of  the  street  scene. 

Space  Between  Adjacent  Buildings 

There  is  fully  as  much  reason  if  not  more  for 
establishing  minimum  distances  between  build- 
ings, on  the  side  line,  as  on  the  street.  A good 
standard  is  sixteen  or  twenty  feet  between 
buildings, — that  is,  an  average  of  eight  or  ten 
feet  from  the  building  to  the  side  line.  Light, 
air  and  ventilation  of  homes  depend  more  upon 
this  restriction  than  upon  any  other.  Mini- 
mum distance  between  the  backs  of  houses 
should  be  50  feet. 


Zoning 

The  zoning  of  a new  town  or  village  is  not  a 
very  difficult  matter,  at  least  not  for  one  who 
has  skill  and  exjierience  in  town  planning.  The 
toi)ograj:)hical  character  of  different  parts  of  a 
tract  often  determines  which  areas  are  best  for 
various  jiurposes, — for  example,  for  factories, 
for  stores  and  shops,  for  open  sjiaces,  and  for 
the  different  grades  or  classes  of  homes.  More- 
over, the  shop  and  store  zone  and  the  parks  can 
almost  always  be  so  placed,  and  their  boundaries 
so  arranged  as  to  make  them  serve  as  buffer 
zones  between  the  residence  districts  and  the 
factories  or  other  outlying  unrestricted  or  un- 
controlled areas.  In  this  way  values  are  in- 
creased and  the  homes  of  the  people  are  pro- 
tected from  noise  and  dust  and  unpleasant 
outlooks,  and  thus  rendered  more  agreeable  for 
domestic  life. 

Use  of  Property  for  Lots,  Streets,  etc. 

An  important  test  of  success  in  the  laying  out 
of  an  industrial  village  is  the  percentage  of 
property  used  for  various  purposes, — lots, 
semi-public  properties,  public  properties,  and 
streets.  The  normal  ratio  for  lots  is  about  58 
per  cent ; for  streets  25  per  cent ; for  open  spaces, 
etc.,  15  per  cent.  Examples  showing  the  varia- 
tions due  to  one  cause  or  another  are  given  in  the 
following  table  and  diagram.  For  economic 
reasons  at  least  50  per  cent  should  usually  be 
used  for  lots,  and  not  more  than  25  per  cent 
for  streets,  unless  some  of  the  main  thorough- 
fares of  the  city  run  through  the  tract. 

Percentage  of  Property  for 
Various  Purposes 


Percentage 


Union  Park  Gardens, 

Lots 

Streets 

Parks  and 
Other  Areas 

Wilmington,  Del 

Loveland  Farms, 

54-5 

31 

I 

14-5 

Youngstown,  Ohio 

Kistler  Industrial  Village, 

73- 

21 

8 

5-2 

Kistler,  Pa 

Neponset  Garden  Village, 

40.7 

29 

6 

29.7 

East  Walpole,  Mass .... 

62.5 

19 

5 

18. 

Allwood,  N.  J 

Overlook  Colony, 

66.4 

25 

8.6 

Clavmont,  Del 

57- 

24 

19. 

Green  Acres, 

Waterburv,  Conn 

55- 

29 

16 . 

Averages 

584 

25 

7 

15. 8 ^ 

HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


7 


Summary  of  Steps 

The  steps  for  a complete  community  develop- 
ment may  be  summarized  as  follows; 

1.  An  accurate  topographical  survey  at  scale 
of  about  50  feet  to  the  inch  with  contours  at 
intervals  of  from  one  to  five  feet,  according  to 
circumstances,  is  the  fundamental  basis  of  the 
plans. 

2.  The  reservation  of  public  lands  play- 
grounds, open  spaces,  parks,  etc.  An  important 
part  of  such  reservation  would  usually  be  the 
natural  features  of  the  property. 

3.  The  subdivision  of  the  area  into  blocks  of 
well  dimensioned  lots,  according  to  require- 
ments. 

4.  The  setting  aside  of  appropriate  sites  for 
schools  and  other  public  or  semi-public  build- 
ings, and  for  community  centers,  making  proper 
provision  for  moving  pictures  and  other  popular 
amusements. 

5.  A system  of  streets  with  sidewalks,  grass 
margins,  planting  strips,  etc.,  differentiated  into 
main  and  minor  streets. 

6.  An  electric  car  or  motor  bus  service 
approaching  within  a quarter  of  a mile  of  every 
house  lot;  preferably,  electric  car  lines  should 
not  run  on  residential  streets. 

7.  A complete  system  of  sanitary  and  storm 
water  sewers;  water,  gas,  electric  light  and 
telephone  prearranged.  If  financially  possible, 
wires  should  be  placed  underground. 

8.  The  establishment  of  zones  and  of  building 
lines  and  other  suitable  restrictions  throughout 
the  property. 


9.  The  reasonable  regulation  and  control 
of  the  location  of  buildings  and  of  their  archi- 
tecture. 

10.  The  detail  planning  for  all  roads,  parks, 
street  intersections;  and  if  possible,  also,  of  the 
private  property. 

Management  and  Upkeep 

No  matter  how  much  wisdom  and  skill  are 
shown  in  the  selection  of  the  land,  in  the  laying 
out  of  the  tract,  in  the  adoption  of  house  types, 
in  the  zoning  of  the  village,  etc.,  unless  adequate 
provision  is  made  for  the  proper,  permanent 
maintenance  of  the  property,  the  whole  develop- 
ment is  in  danger  of  idtimate  failure.  Restrictions 
will  help  decidedly,  but  even  then  proper  main- 
tenance and  upkeep  are  essential.  Such  main- 
tenance is  obviously  a much  simpler  problem 
when  the  property  is  held  in  a single  ownership. 

The  industrial  town  or  village  of  tomorrow 
will  make  better  provision  for  an  orderly  devel- 
opment; it  will  provide  for  more  convenient 
circulation  by  means  of  streets  and  roads;  it 
will  exercise  a larger  measure  of  official  control 
in  so  vital  a subject  as  zoning;  better  standards 
of  public  work  will  increasingly  prevail.  Play 
and  recreation  and  amusement  will  be  better 
understood  and  provided  for,  and  all  the  prob- 
lems of  preserving  and  enhancing  child  life  will 
have  more  attention.  Maintenance  will  not  be 
left  to  chance.  The  characteristic  American 
home  of  today,  as  we  see  it  in  almost  any  indus- 
trial town  or  village  is  not,  we  can  be  sure,  to 
be  the  characteristic  American  home  of  the 
future. 


8 


HOMKS  FOR  WORKMEN 


Civic  Center,  Kaiiiton.  Ala.,  with  the  General  Store  on  the  Left  and  Y . .1/.  C.  A.  and  Office  Building  on  the  Right,  Kaulton 
Inn  is  Shown  at  the  U pper  Left  Corner  of  Page,  Other  Buildings  are  the  Negro  Y.  M.  C.  A. 

and  One  of  Kaulton  s Schools 


KAULTON,  ALABAMA 

A SOUTHERN  PINE  MANUFACTURING  TOWN  BUILT  ALONG  MODEL  LINES 

Proprietary  J^illage  Scientifically  Planned  to  Attain 
Definite  Objectives’’'’  ...  as  described  by 

GEORCiE  H.  MILLER 

Industrial  Tozvn  Planner,  Boston,  Mass. 


WHEN  the  Kaul  Lumber  Company 
faced  the  problem  of  locating  and 
building  a new  plant  for  sawing  the 
timber  of  its  extensive  tracts,  it  not  only  made 
a thorough  study  of  the  geographical  and  topo- 
graphical suitability  of  different  locations,  but 
also  went  deeply  into  a study  of  the  town  prob- 
lem and  the  advantages  that  might  be  gained 
in  the  matter  of  housing  employees. 

This  subject  proved  to  be  one  of  widespread 
importance.  By  looking  into  the  matter  it  was 
brought  out  that  some  investigators  had  shown 
up  serious  weaknesses  in  social  conditions  re- 
lated to  industry;  had  shown  that  in  trying 
times  the  standard  of  employees’  housing  had 
been  a reflection  on  certain  industrial  concerns ; 
that  whole  industries  had  been  injured  in 
legislation  owing  to  the  matter  of  housing; 
that  cities  were  perfecting  housing  laws  and 
were  getting  greater  power  from  the  states  for 
that  purpose,  and  had  shown  that  a movement 
for  better  housing  of  workmen  was  worldwide. 

The  housing  problem  was  found  to  be  more 
than  the  scattering  of  some  shacks  as  the  com- 
pany, like  many  others,  had  done  in  the  past; 
the  problem  was  found  to  be  one  of  town  plan- 
ning, and  that  most  of  the  principles  of  city 
planning  applied,  although  in  a miniature  way. 
Therefore  just  as  the  company  would  study 
various  arrangements  and  details  of  its  plant, 
employ  skilled  designers  to  determine  exactly 
what  it  wished  accomplished,  would  make 
plans  and  do  all  figuring  on  paper  before  one 
cent  would  be  actually  expended  on  construc- 
tion, so  also  with  housing  it  employed  the 


services  of  those  who  had  made  a life  study  of 
the  work,  determining  the  advantages  to  be 
gained  and  how  best  to  gain  them. 

Attracting  the  Best  Class  of  Labor 

It  is  true  that  in  a community  such  as  a 
lumber  manufacturing  village,  a textile  mill  or 
mining  town,  labor  may  be  shifting.  Never- 
theless, multitudes  of  human  beings  spend  a 
large  number  of  their  days  in  such  towns,  and 
there  they  go  through  their  lives  of  work,  play, 
love  and  worship,  naturally  according  to  the 
facilities  offered.  The  old  fallacy  is  that  labor 
does  not  appreciate  desirable  conditions,  and 
yet  that  is  a point.  There  is  a world-wide  sup- 
ply of  both  good  labor  and  worthless  labor,  but 
a concern  like  the  Kaul  Lumber  Company  does 
not  want  the  poor  labor  — it  wants  the  kind  of 
labor  that  appreciates  the  desirable  conditions 
which  it  has  to  offer  in  its  town,  letting  the  poor 
labor  go  to  employers  who  may  have  less  faith 
in  workmen.  The  Kaul  Lumber  Company  is 
providing  conditions  that  will  attract  the  kind 
of  labor  that  appreciates  desirable  conditions, 
and  only  that  kind  will  be  accepted  for  work  in 
its  lumber  plant. 

Maintaining  Labor’s  Producing 
Power 

Those  familiar  with  the  subject  of  scientific 
management  as  applied  to  shop,  mill,  mine  or 
yard,  all  operating  ends  of  an  industry,  know 
that  the  principles  of  scientific  management, 
whether  or  not  under  that  name,  have  a large 
bearing  on  success  in  industrial  production. 


9 


10 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


'Fhese  principles  consider  working  conditions, 
consider  the  workman  at  work,  while  he  is 
within  the  mill  gate,  and  for  the  purpose  of 
making  it  possible  for  him  to  deliver  the  greatest 
])ercentage  of  his  ])otential  ability  in  work.  But 
heretofore  scientific  management  has  not  given 
sufficient  attention  to  the  preservation  or  crea- 
tion of  fitness  of  a workman  for  work  in  those 
non-working  hours  when  there  is  being  deter- 
mined the  potential  ability  of  which  he  is  to 
give  a high  or  low  ])ercentage  in  work.  There- 
fore it  is  ])lain  that  scientific  planning  of  indus- 
trial towns  becomes  an  important  and  essential 
complement  to  scientific  management  in  indus- 


trial operations.  It  is  a fact  that  the  efficiency 
of  labor  in  one  town  has  been  increased  25  per 
cent  in  a few  months. 

The  process  means  not  only  attracting  the 
most  desirable  labor,  but  also  maintaining  and 
increasing  the  efficiency  of  that  labor  by  pro- 
viding conditions  that  will  contribute  toward 
the  upbuilding  of  the  required  kind  of  strength, 
skill  and  will  in  the  workman  that  will  enable 
him  to  give  more  to  his  employer  and  thus  get 
more  for  himself.  Every  feature  in  such  a town 
is  designed  to  have  some  constructive  influence 
for  specifically  benefiting  the  workman  for  his 
work,  and  he  gets  nothing  he  does  not  pay  for. 


Plot  Plan,  Kaulton,  Ala. 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


11 


Type  yno-W.  House  for  Superintendent 


thus  eliminating  the  element  of  paternalism. 
This  does  not  mean  that  desirable  conditions 
are  being  created  with  blind  extravagance;  the 
fact  is  that  the  subject  of  what  to  provide  and 
what  not  to  provide  and  the  reasons  why  are 
reduced  to  a science.  Too  often  in  short  periods 
the  cost  of  impaired  efficiency  of  workmen, 
due,  among  many  other  things  to  the  effects 
of  malaria,  hook-worm,  or  other  diseases,  are 
very  much  greater  than  the  cost  of  preventives, 
and  therefore  it  becomes  a good  investment  to 
assure  that  the  sources  of  infection  will  be 
known,  that  there  be  screens  from  disease- 
carrying  flies,  that  mosquito-breeding  spots  be 
drained,  that  unpolluted  water  be  provided, 
and  other  improvements  be  made. 

Men  must  and  will  live,  they  will  work,  play, 
love  and  worship.  How  they  perform  the  latter 
three  functions  of  life  will  determine  largely 
the  percentage  of  their  potential  ability  for 
work  to  take  into  the  operating  plant  with 
them,  and  will  be  determined  largely  by  what 
the  physical  town  features  permit  and  invite. 
True  it  is  that  administrative  means  are  also 
necessary,  yet  to  gain  results  a physical  foun- 
dation is  essential.  The  most  meagre  indus- 
trial town  can  afford  and  can  be  designed  to 


maintain  and  uphold  the  strength,  skill  and 
will  of  the  workman  for  his  work,  maintain  and 
upbuild  efficiency  in  industrial  production,  and 
that  is  another  objective  this  town  was  designed 
to  attain. 

Increment  On  Land  Values 

Thorough  study  in  the  designing  of  the  town 
of  the  Kaul  Lumber  Company  was  accepted  as 
no  more  than  a business  precaution,  to  get  up- 
to-date  information  about  all  phases  of  modern 
town  building  before  the  work  was  undertaken. 
The  consequences  are  that  from  a real  estate 
point  of  view  the  plans  provide  for  a character 
and  arrangement  of  its  own  features  and  a tie- 
ing-in  with  the  existing  highways,  the  preferred 
subdivision  of  adjacent  tracts,  and  the  plan  of 
Tuscaloosa,  of  which  Kaulton  is  a suburb,  in 
such  a way  that  now  and  in  the  future  best 
land  values  will  be  realized.  The  scheme  also 
provides  for  expansion,  thus  taking  care  of  a 
])ossible  increase  in  the  number  of  employees 
in  the  Kaul  mill  or  the  employees  of  b}^-product 
mills,  which  no  doubt  through  time  will  develop 
and  for  which  strategic  sites  and  shipi')ing 
facilities  are  laid  down.  In  fact,  the  lumber 
company  has  at  present  built  only  one  hundred 


12 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


Type  400-W.  Four-room  House  for  White  Employees 


Type  200-C.  Two-room  House  for  Negro  Employees 


Kaulton,  Alabama 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


13 


to  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  houses,  and 
yet  provision  is  made  for  many  times  that  num- 
ber. This  scheme  has  been  so  worked  out  that 
already  the  increment  on  land  values  is  an 
item  of  considerable  importance,  and  it  was 
practically  established  the  moment  the  plans 
were  laid  down.  And  that  was  another  objec- 
tive the  town  was  designed  to  attain. 

The  town  is  located  as  near  the  extensive 
lumber  plant  as  seemed  advantageous  for  fire 
protection.  The  axis  of  the  town  is  perpen- 
dicular to  the  long  lines  of  the  mill  buildings, 
and  on  it  is  the  8o-foot  wide  mill  entrance 
street  along  which,  looking  toward  the  mill,  wall 
be  seen  an  arbor  seat  under  shade  trees  framing 
the  base  of  a 125-foot  w'ater  tower.  From  this 
road  which  leads  to  the  civic  center  there  is  a 
separate  passage  to  the  negro  quarters. 

Is  Pleasant  and  Inviting 

A distinctive  scheme  of  planting  accents  the 
architectural  rigidity  of  this  emphatically  for- 
mal straight  line  on  which  the  whole  towm 
scheme  balances,  frames  the  view  to  the  mill 
buildings  and  makes  the  approach  pleasant  and 
inviting.  The  commissary,  club  house,  bath 
and  office  buildings,  located  nearest  to  the  mill 
with  which  they  are  more  or  less  associated, 
and  within  easy  access  to  a road  to  the  negro 
quarters,  take  an  octagonal  form  at  the  end 
of  the  mill  entrance  road,  and,  together  with  a 
church,  a school  and  a hotel,  are  designed  as  a 


unit  and  form  the  civic  group.  Pergola  ex- 
tensions of  the  two  main  buildings  are  to  make 
a shelter  gateway,  from  which  the  direction  of 
travel  follows  two  drives  about  a semi-circular 
open  space,  thus  forming  a public  square  at 
a slight  elevation  overlooking  an  open  area 
reserved  for  possible  park  and  playground 
])urposes. 

This  central  open  area  divides  itself  into 
three  parts.  One  is  the  great  central  open 
athletic  field  around  which  paths  lead  from  the 
mill  entrance  and  all  streets;  the  splendid  exist- 
ing tree  growth  which  has  been  saved,  together 
with  the  tree  and  shrub  masses  proposed,  will 
form  irregular  edges  of  soft  foliage,  wTile  the 
walk  encircling  the  field  can  also  be  used  as  a 
running  track  and  therefore  is  kept  in  front  of 
the  site  for  a grandstand  on  a sloping  hill- 
side. 

The  other  twm  divisions  of  the  central  park 
are:  first,  a portion  in  which  attractively  curv- 
ing paths  lead  through  ornamental  planting 
which  shuts  out  the  road  on  one  side  and  on  the 
other  surrounds  an  open  space  to  be  used  for 
varied  games  by  adults;  second,  a children’s 
playground  near  schoolhouse  location,  in  which 
a shelter  is  provided  where  mothers  may  sit  in 
the  shade  and  wntch  children  playing  in  the 
wading  pool  below  or  using  playground  appa- 
ratus in  adjacent  open  spaces.  This  area  is 
also  surrounded  by  ornamental  plantations, 
through  which  lead  winding  park  paths. 


Street  Scene,  Negro  Quarters,  Kaiilton 


14 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


I'Yom  this  ])ark,  wide  highways,  which 
eventually  may  become  l)oulcvards  of  the  city 
of  Tuscaloosa,  extend  by  long  sweeping  curves 
on  one  side  in  a diagonal  direction  toward 
'Fuscaloosa  center,  on  the  other  through  a 
beautiful  woodland  hollow  to  the  railroad 
station,  thus  extending  a parkway  throughout 
the  length  of  the  town  by  tw(^  wings  of  the 
central  park  area. 

Maintenance  Reduced  to  Minimum 

Street  widths,  width  of  walks  and  width  of 
roadwac’S  are  designed  at  each  point  to  carry 
the  amount  of  tralTic  which  will  traverse  that 
point  and  no  more,  and  thus  with  the  applica- 
tion of  certain  other  ideas  the  maintenance  is 
reduced  to  the  minimum.  An  extensive  scheme 
of  tree  and  shrub  planting  has  l)een  worked  out 
for  all  streets  and  fronts  of  cchtages,  these  to 
furnish  a revitalizing  shade  and  sheets  of  flower 
bloom,  to  direct  traffic  and  to  hold  sliding  soils. 
Building  lines  are  fixed,  and  height  of  floors, 
and  the  lot  widths,  lot  de])ths  and  lot  features 
are  determined  to  most  easily  accommodate 
the  use  to  be  desired  and  to  discourage  other 
use.  The  cottage  designs  are  an  application  of 
the  California  bungalow  type,  with  roofs 
sleeping  toward  the  street.  In  these  is  space  for 
halls,  closets,  and  a future  bathroom.  Vine 
trellises  shut  off  the  view  from  street  into  rooms, 
and  flower  boxes,  taking  the  place  of  porch  rails, 
accommodate  [dants  which  are  always  ])resent 
but  which  are  too  often  seen  in  hanging  tin 


cans.  In  a lumber  town  the  material  of  con- 
struction is  naturally  wood,  which  in  the  differ- 
ent cottages  has  many  diversifications  and,  pur- 
posely being  unplaned,  take  the  subdued  tones 
of  different  color  stains  selected  to  give  individu- 
ality to  each  house  and  yet  conform  to  a pleas- 
ing town  scheme.  The  equal  spacing  of  the 
cottages  is  very  pleasing  in  ajipearance  when 
seen  in  a perspective  on  streets  following 
attractive  curves,  and  while  the  esthetic  has 
been  a consideration  secondary  to  the  economic 
and  utilitarian,  yet  it  will  be  valuable  in  en- 
listing the  civic  spirit  and  home  pride  of  the 
workmen. 

There  are  no  steps  lost  in  walking  through 
Kaulton,  and  no  useless  space.  Conditions 
there  are  convenient,  safe  and  sanitary;  the 
town  is  pleasing  in  appearance,  easy  of  upkeep 
and  [lermitting  of  expansion.  And  all  these 
were  objectives  the  town  was  designed  to 
attain. 

It  has  been  pointed  out  that  a tendency 
upon  the  part  of  Industrial  concerns  to  con- 
sider these  matters  deserves  public  commenda- 
tion and  public  consideration  that  is  valuable 
in  effect  on  legislation  and  the  selling  of  goods. 
These  objectives  also  were  defined  in  advance 
as  advantageous  and  to  be  attained  in  the  de- 
signing of  the  town. 

Reduced  Cost  of  Construction 

Xow  measuring  the  cost  and  value  of  proper 
planning,  the  town  plan  properly  provides  for 


Type  400-C.  Four-room  House  for  Negro  Labor 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


15 


most  advanced  conditions,  such  as  drainage 
and  sanitary  sewers,  water,  lights,  street  car 
lines,  park  and  parkway  developments,  a civic 
center,  etc.,  but  it  is  intended  that  these  fea- 
tures shall  be  carried  out  only  as  conditions 
demand  and  as  the  employees  co-operate.  They 
will  not  all  be  carried  out  at  once,  but  the  value 
of  the  plan  is  in  knowing  what  not  to  do,  what 
to  do,  how  to  do  it,  and  the  reasons  why;  in 
that  everything  that  is  done  is  a contribution 
toward  an  eventual  ideal  unihed  scheme;  in 
that  nothing  will  have  to  be  undone,  that 
there  will  be  a minimum  of  waste.  It  is  enough 
to  say  that  the  cost  of  the  attention  given  to 
planning  has  easily  been  saved  even  in  the  first 
work  carried  out.  Streets  fit  the  topography, 
and  were  inexpensive  to  grade.  The  street 
scheme  takes  a fan  shape,  and  the  lines  follow 
curves,  and  yet  the  number  of  lots  gained  is 
greater  than  would  have  been  the  number  of 


lots  in  an  unattractive  rectilinear  scheme  which 
would  have  required  little  experience  to  plan 
to  meet  at  least  the  conditions.  The  houses  fit 
the  topography  and  will  be  inexpensive  to  build. 
The  cottage  designs  are  more  roomy  and  more 
attractive  than  any  so  far  built  in  that  section, 
and  yet  the  cost  is  lower.  One  feature  is  a hotel 
designed  along  California  Spanish  lines,  having  a 
wide  front  terrace  and  pergola,  liberal  living  and 
diningrooms,  corridors,  bathrooms  and  closets, 
and  a very  attractive  interior  patio.  The  saving 
in  cost  to  build  this  hotel  following  desirable 
lines  compared  with  an  estimate  of  cost  to  have 
built  the  customary  carpenteresque  type  was 
more  than  the  amount  of  the  town  planner’s 
fee  for  laying  out  the  whole  town.  The  cost  of 
construction  has  been  less  than  in  the  usual 
town  which  develops  along  haphazard  lines, 
and  yet  at  this  lesser  cost  a better  product  has 
been  gained. 


KAULTON  FROM  AN  INVESTMENT 

STANDPOINT 


By  JOHN  L.  KAUl, 

President  Kaul  Lumber  Company 


WI^  ha\  e had  it  in  mind  to  create  an 
attracti\  e community  which  would  aid 
us  in  securing  and  holding  the  most 
efficient  and  desirable  type  of  labor,  rather 
than  to  make  a dividend-jjaying  proposition  of 
our  o])cratives’  houses.  With  this  in  view,  we 
have  established  our  rents  on  a basis  of  $2.00 
per  room  for  the  houses  for  white  employees, 
and  $1.50  per  room  for  the  houses  for  colored 
employees.  In  addition,  a certain  charge  per 
month  is  made  for  rental  for  facilities  fur- 
nished in  the  way  of  buildings  of  \’arious  kinds, 
such  as  stables,  garages,  etc.  This  charge 
averages  60c  })er  month  for  each  place.  The 
white  three-room  houses  would,  therefore,  rent 
for  $6.60  per  month;  the  four-room  houses  for 
$8.60;  five-room  houses  for  $10.60,  etc.  The 
houses  for  colored  emplo\'ees  will  run  from 
about  $3.50  for  the  two-room  type  to  about 
>$6.75  for  the  four-room  t}'pe. 

After  charging  against  rental  account  the 
cost  of  maintenance,  interest,  taxes  and  depre- 
ciation, there  remains  nothing  in  the  way  of 
an  earning.  In  fact,  in  thi^s  period  of  high  costs 
there  is  undoubtedly  a loss  incurred  in  connec- 
tion with  our  operati\'es’  houses. 

We  do  not,  howe\'er,  intend  to  furnish 
facilities  of  this  character  at  less  than  cost  as 


part  compensation  for  labor  performed,  as  we 
believe  this  is  an  entirely  wrong  principle,  and 
defeats  its  own  object. 

Our  operatives’  houses  are  not  for  sale,  but 
we  have  set  aside  certain  property  which  has 
been  divided  into  building  lots  in  an  attractive 
manner  and  have  provided  facilities  which  per- 
mit of  our  employees  building  homes  for  them- 
selves on  terms  which  can  easily  be  met.  This 
has  resulted  in  cjuite  a number  of  them  buying 
places. 

Our  tenants  are  encouraged  by  means  of 
contests  and  otherwise  to  keep  their  places  in 
first-class  condition  in  every  respect,  and  in 
beautifying  them  by  means  of  grass  plots, 
flower  gardens,  etc. 

We  have  made  it  a point  to  provade  large 
enough  lots  to  give  opportunity  for  the  cultiva- 
tion of  vegetable  gardens,  and  by  means  of 
contests  with  substantial  prizes,  have  en- 
couraged the  making  of  gardens  to  an  extent 
that  has  been  very  well  worth  while.  All  of 
this  seems  to  make  our  little  town  attractive 
to  the  better  class  of  saw  mill  labor,  and  en- 
courages the  community  spirit  and  brings  to  us 
a direct  benefit  that  comes  through  content- 
ment and  efficiency  which  could  not  be  pur- 
chased with  money. 


HOW  SHALL  WE  PROVIDE  GOOD 
HOUSES  FOR  ALL? 


By  CHARLES  HARRIS  WHITAKER 

Editor,  Journal  of  the  American  Institute  of  Architects 


The  war  was  like  a pitiless  searchlight, 
the  piercing  rays  of  which  could  not  be 
turned  off.  It  searched  out  every  nook 
and  cranny  of  our  national  life  and  we  could 
not  do  as  we  were  used  to  doing  in  peace  and 
quietly  shut  our  eyes.  We  had  to  look  wherever 
it  shone  for  we  knew  that,  in  the  test  we  had 
to  meet,  everything  depended  on  the  thorough- 
ness with  which  we  discovered  our  weaknesses 
and  corrected  them. 

Thus  the  light  of  war  is  something  for  which 
we  have  to  be  grateful.  It  pointed  the  finger  of 
warning  and  the  only  thing  to  fear  is  that  with 
its  end,  we  shall  forget  again  and  begin  to  close 
our  eyes.  Also,  it  is  true  that  millions  of  people 
who  saw  our  weak  spots  under  the  glare  of  war 
were  guilty  of  thinking  that  they  were  war  weak- 
nesses only,  and  that  they  were  due  to  the  un- 
usual stress  and  strain  of  war.  Whereas  the 
fact  is  that  the  war  merely  converted  certain 
chronic  conditions  into  acute  attacks. 

Of  these  the  so-called  Housing  Problem  is 
one.  To  most  people  in  the  United  States  it 
appeared  both  as  a new  problem  and  a war 
problem.  It  was  a war  problem  as  we  found 
to  our  cost  and  our  delay,  but  it  is  in  no  sense  a 
new  problem.  It  has  been  discussed  in  this 
country  for  some  time  and  in  other  lands  it 
has  been  growing  into  one  of  the  most  serious 
of  national  menaces  for  many  years. 

What  “Housing”  Really  Portends 

Let  us  scan  the  word  “housing”  closely  and 
see  what  it  really  portends.  In  the  light  of 
war  we  shall  see  that  the  great  shortage  of 
houses  in  industrial  centers  was  a cause  of 
delay  in  the  production  of  every  kind  of  war 


necessity.  The  Government  recognized  this 
shortage  and  appropriated  some  two  hundred 
millions  of  dollars  to  correct  it.  If  the  war  had 
continued  that  sum  would  undoubtedly  have 
been  considerably  increased,  but  the  word 
“housing”  has  come  to  have  a much  larger 
significance.  Literally  it  stands  for  one  of  the 
gravest  defects  in  our  national  life,  for  it 
means  that,  due  to  a variety  of  causes,  we 
have  reached  a condition  where  we  do  not 
know  how  to  provide  good  houses  for  a vast 
and  increasing  multitude  of  our  wage  earners. 

This  is  literally  true,  mark  it  well,  for  the 
problems  to  be  solved  are  not  mere  questions  of 
architecture,  or  engineering,  or  sanitation. 
They  are  economic  problems  involving  our 
national  mode  of  life,  both  social  and  economic; 
they  have  arrived  almost  unsuspected, — one 
might  almost  say,  still  unknown  to  a large 
number. 

Under  the  economic  and  industrial  system 
which  we  borrowed  in  a lump  from  Europe  we 
were  suddenly  startled  by  learning,  as  a result 
of  the  war,  that  we  had  followed  precisely  the 
same  path  down  which  the  nations  of  Europe 
have  been  ])lunging  for  the  last  century.  There 
are  no  slums  and  congested  areas  in  Europe 
which  cannot  be  matched  or  even  surjjassed  in 
the  United  States.  New  York  can  rival  London, 
Paris,  or  even  Constantinoide,  in  this  respect. 
The  cotton  manufacturing  towns  of  New  Eng- 
land are  in  no  sense  behind  Lancashire  in  the 
degree  of  their  squalor  and  overcrowding. 
Pittsburgh,  and  our  steel  and  iron  mining  and 
manufacturing  towns  in  general  are  not  sur- 
passed in  the  degree  of  their  inhuman  li\'ing 
conditions  by  Sheffield,  or  the  West]fiialian 


17 


18 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


district,  or  the  French  and  Belgian  districts 
of  similar  character.  Look  where  one  will, 
the  United  States  is  seen  to  have  re])eated,  as 
though  inca])able  of  profiting  from  the  exam])le 
of  others,  the  same  cycles  of  slum  and  conges- 
tion, filth  and  sf[ualor,  which  have  marked  the 
Iirogress  of  all  nations  in  their  passionate 
struggle  for  industrial  suiiremacy. 

A Problem  We  Must  Face 

Mas  the  time  not  come,  then,  when  it  is 
])ertinent  for  us  to  ask,  how  it  is  that  in  a 
democracy,  dedicated  to  eijual  opjiortunity  and 
the  right  to  life  and  liberty  and  the  pursuit  of 
happiness,  we  have  not  been  able  to  avoid  the 
disease  which  has  raged  in  all  the  major  Euro- 
jiean  nations  since  Watts  made  it  possible  to 
centralize  industry.  We  do  not  like,  as  a nation, 
to  face  these  jiroblems.  We  are  a little  proud  of 
our  progress,  one  fears,  and  as  a rule  are  quite 
unwilling  to  believe  that  we  have  allowed  these 
things  to  come  to  jiass,  or  that  we  have  done  no 
better  in  the  management  of  our  industrial 
progress  than  other  nations  have  done.  But 
the  first  essential  in  understanding  any  jirob- 
lem  is  to  be  willing  to  face  it  unreser\'edly  and 
without  any  false  pride  or  sentiment,  and  to  seek 
the  facts,  no  matter  how  un])leasant  they  may 
be,  realizing  that  we  can  in  no  way  i)rescribe 
an  adequate  remedy  until  we  are  sure  of  the 
entire  nature  of  the  disease  we  wish  to  cure. 

'Fhe  history  of  the  so-called  “housing”  ques- 
tion is  not  difficult  to  come  at  or  understand. 
.\lmost  every  civilized  nation  has,  at  one  time 
or  another,  found  it  necessary  to  bestow  its 
attention  upon  the  problem.  Gradually  there 
was  forced  home  the  conviction  that  under 
private  initiative  the  question  of  housing  had 
got  itself  into  such  a muddle  that  only  the 
nation  could  extricate  it  and  start  it  aright. 
'Fhis  has  been  true  of  many  other  cpiestions, 
and  will  eventually  be  true  of  all  economic 
questions,  no  doubt,  for  men  do  ha\’e  a way  of 
muddling  the  national  welfare  in  seeking  their 
own  ends,  and  nations  then  do  have  to  inter- 
fere as  a measure  of  self-preservation.  We  have 
seen  the  necessity  of  this  in  war,  on  an  un- 
paralleled scale.  The  Government  gradually 


assumed  control  of  every  activity  of  life,  since 
it  was  only  by  so  doing  that  it  could  organize 
and  mobilize  the  resources  of  the  nation. 

But  if  we  pursue  the  analogy  a little  further, 
we  see  that  the  test  applied  in  the  war  was  un- 
l)recedented  simply  because  the  war  was  unpre- 
cedented in  the  demands  which  it  made  upon 
organized  effort.  Yet  is  there  any  reason  to 
doubt  that  the  demands  of  the  New  Peace  will 
be  efjually  uni)recendented  and  that  the  Govern- 
ment will  more  and  more  be  drawn  into  this 
work  of  organizing  for  the  common  good?  What 
is  there  to  fear  in  it?  Why  should  we  cry  out  in 
such  dismay  when  it  is  ])roposed  to  have  the 
Government  build  houses?  The  answer  is  that 
there  are  many  who  feel  that  if  the  Government 
should  set  a human  standard  for  living  condi- 
tions, their  investment  in  slum  j)roperty  would 
be  seriously  impaired.  This  being  true,  we 
ought  seriously  to  ask  ourselves  whether  the 
purpose  of  Gov’ernment  is  to  protect  the  rentals 
from,  and  in,  an  inordinately  profitable  slum 
pro])erty,  or  constantly  to  seek  wa}’s  and  means 
of  making  the  slum  impossible.  Until  we  first 
determine,  fearlessly  and  unselfishly,  what  the 
function  of  the  Government  is  in  this,  we  can- 
not get  very  far  in  trying  to  find  a remedy  for 
the  disease  of  the  slum,  and  the  tax  it  takes  on 
the  child  and  the  mother  and  the  manhood  of 
the  Nation. 

If  we  are  not  ready  to  apply  the  same  prin- 
ciples in  Peace  which  we  ha\’e  applied  in  War 
and  under  which  we  recognized  that  the  quality 
of  our  manhood  was  the  deciding  factor  which 
would  carry  us  through  to  victory,  then  it  is 
idle  to  discuss  the  housing  problem.  But  if  we 
are  willing  to  carry  those  principles  over  from 
War  into  Peace  and  thus  admit  that  the  duty 
of  Government  is  to  insure  decent  living  con- 
ditions for  all  workers,  then  we  are  ready  to 
set  about  the  task  of  finding  out  what  is  the 
best  thing  to  be  done  toward  bringing  about 
such  an  end.  This  should  not  be  taken  to  imply 
an  argument  for  Governmental  interference  in 
the  housing  question  in  peace.  The  question 
should  be  left  open,  although  it  must  be  obGous 
that  some  sort  of  Governmental  regulation  will 
undoubtedly  be  necessar}'. 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


19 


The  Land  a Vital  Factor 

Land  is  at  once  the  most  difficult  and  the 
most  objectionable  factor  for  discussion  which 
can  be  found  in  our  economic  life.  It  is  a sub- 
ject which  is  generally  slurred  over  or  dis- 
missed by  most  writers  on  housing  with  the 
remark  that  the  manufacturer  should  seek 
low-priced  land  for  his  venture  in  workmen’s 
houses.  Seldom,  in  any  work  on  the  subject,  is 
the  question  treated  at  length.  Most  writers 
are  unwilling  to  address  themselves  to  so  un- 
popular a subject,  and  yet  it  lies  at  the  bottom 
of  the  economic  path  over  which  we  must  travel 
in  search  of  a solution  of  the  housing  problem. 
If  we  look  at  the  experience  of  England,  and  of 
Germany,  and  of  New  Zealand  and  of  Australia, 
we  shall  see  that  all  of  them,  in  their  efforts  to 
solve  this  great  and  vital  national  difficulty  have 
come  at  last  to  recognize  that  unless  they  could 
find  an  adequate  method  of  treating  land 
developments  and  land  values,  all  of  their 
millions  spent  in  housing  were  of  little  avail. 
England  suffered  under  a system  of  landlordism 
which  has  slowly  been  grinding  her  to  death. 
Not  only  was  it  practically  impossible  to  buy 
land  in  fee  in  England,  but  enormous  areas 
were  wilfully  kept  out  of  use  by  titled  owners 
who  desired  to  preserve  their  ancient  solitude 
undisturbed.  No  other  country  suffered  so 
acutely  in  this  respect,  although  all  of  the 
European  nations  have  been  under  heavy  land 
pressure  for  some  time.  Yet  the  strange  thing 
is  that  even  in  the  United  States,  with  an 
enormous  unoccupied  land  area,  we,  too,  have 
reached  a degree  of  absentee  landlordism  with 
which  we  must  reckon.  The  figures  are  given 
in  our  last  census,  and  they  are  such  a challenge 
to  our  future  that  it  would  be  criminal  to  ignore 
them. 

The  land  is,  then,  a vital  factor  in  the  build- 
ing of  the  house  and  the  creation  of  the  home. 
It  is  vital  in  its  character  and  location,  of 
course,  but  we  shall  discuss  it  only  as  it 
affects  the  cost.  The  higher  the  price  of  the 
land  the  less  money  can  be  spent  on  the  house, 
for  the  fixed  rental  or  sale  value  must  be  pre- 
served. This  has  a tendency  to  rise  all  the  time, 
as  we  shall  see  later,  but  it  is  the  prevailing 


rental  rate  which  determines  the  financial  basis 
of  any  house-building  operation  at  the  time. 
In  getting  at  the  influence  of  land  cost,  let  us 
assume  for  a moment,  that  a public  spirited 
citizen  wishes  to  start  a good  housing  program 
either  as  a new  community  or  as  an  adjunct  to 
an  existing  one.  Let  us  say  that  he  buys  a piece 
of  property,  lays  it  out  generously  with  some 
garden  space  for  each  house  (whether  built 
singly  or  in  a group),  and  that  his  land  value 
charge  per  house  is  $200.00.  No  matter  how 
large  the  area  he  may  buy,  the  fact  remains 
that  when  he  wishes  to  extend  his  venture 
beyond  the  land  which  he  owns,  he  finds  that 
all  of  his  neighbors  have  marked  up  the  value 
of  their  land  solely  on  account  of  the  extra 
desirability  his  building  operations  have  given 
it.  Thus  when  he  has  to  buy  more  land  he  can- 
not get  his  land  value  charge  per  house  down  to 
two  hundred  dollars.  The  next  time  he  builds 
the  process  of  contracting  the  size  of  the  lot 
and  the  size  of  the  house  begins.  This  is  the 
simplest  example  of  the  forces  that  ultimately 
end  by  condemning  men  to  the  tenement,  the 
constantly  shrinking  in-size  tenement,  with 
the  inevitable  overcrowding  and  health  impair- 
ment. In  some  cases  the  process  is  rapid;  in 
others  it  is  slow;  in  all  cases  it  is  the  same.  A 
new  industrial  town,  or  an  old  one  upon  which  a 
large  industry  suddenly  descends,  is  sure  to  be 
at  once  condemned  to  the  same  degree  of  over- 
crowding that  now  pervades  our  older  and 
larger  communities  almost  without  exception. 

This  problem  is  a hard  one  to  face.  Few 
wish  to  face  it.  The  general  theory  is  that  it  is 
an  inescapable  result  of  life  and  that  it  will  in 
some  manner  take  care  of  itself.  No  more 
striking  arraignment  of  our  national  intel- 
ligence could  be  found  than  our  unwillingness 
even  to  permit  a discussion  of  this  question 
generally.  No  one  will  talk  about  it,  exce])t 
here  and  there.  In  polite  society  the  subject  is 
never  mentioned,  although  one  may  discuss 
the  slum  and  its  attendant  evils  without  being 
thought  too  human.  But  if  we  are  still  unwill- 
ing to  study  the  land  cjnestion  with  an  open 
mind  let  us  be  ])repared  to  go  on  with  the  same 
old  evils,  to  continue  to  depend  for  good  houses 


20 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


on  the  speculative  builder  who  is  himself  a 
victim  of  the  price  of  land  (getting  cheaj), 
llimsy,  ugly,  disease-breeding  houses  for  our 
pains)  and  to  sit  by  and  watch  the  older  nations 
forge  ahead  of  us,  for  they  ha\’e  begun  to  learn 
their  lesson  and  to  profit  from  their  experience. 
One  only  needs  to  study  England’s  method  of 
taking  land  for  the  building  of  her  \var-time* 
communities  for  munition  workers  to  see  how 
far  she  has  gone,  while  to  study  the  simple 
method  involved  by  New  Zealand!  and  Aus- 
tralia is  to  learn  how  the  newer  and  smaller 
countries  have  far  outdistanced  the  Ehiited 
States,  ddieir  solutions  may  not  be  ours,  but 
their  courage  in  facing  their  |)roblem  is  a thing 
which  may  well  constitute  a silent  reproach  to 
us  as  a Nation. 

Wages  and  Rentals 

What  a workman,  or  any  one  else  for  that 
matter,  can  pay  out  in  rent  or  in  the  purchase 
of  a house,  de]xmds  on  what  he  recei\-es  in  wages 
or  salary.  It  is  generally  customary  to  use  the 
a\'erage  of  wages  in  a community  as  a base  for 
determining  the  cost  of  the  house  to  be  built  for 
sale  or  for  rent.  This  seems  a common-sense 
way  of  looking  at  the  matter,  but  the  truth  is 
that  we  are  only  just  beginning  to  learn  that  the 
amount  of  a wage  in  dollars  and  cents  is  in  no 
sense  a fixed  base.  It  is  the  purchasing  power  of 
the  wage  which  alone  counts,  and  we  have  seen 
this  purchasing  power  slowh'  decline  during  the 
last  two  or  three  decades.  The  workers  who 
struggle  for  a higher  wage  are  never  able  to  do 
more  than  win  an  ad\'ance  which  is  soon  eaten 
up  by  the  steadily  declining  purchasing  power 
of  the  higher  wage  which  they  win. 

In  war,  we  have  seen  the  profiteering  in 
rents  follow  relentlessly  the  higher  wage  of  the 
war  workers.  No  figures  exist  at  present  to 
show  which  finally  won  out,  but  the  process  is 
onlv  an  acute  manifestation  of  the  usual  peace- 
time method  of  house  owners.  When  wages 
rise,  rents  invariably  rise.  Thus  there  is  a slow 

*Under  the  Defense  of  the  Realm  Act  land  for  housing  can  be 
taken  at  its  pre-war  value,  both  at  the  time  of  the  original  build- 
ing project  and  in  case  of  future  additions. 

tin  New  Zealand  the  Government  not  only  provides  land  but 
lends  money  for  building  a house  as  well,  all  at  a trifling  cost  to 
any  workman  of  good  character. 


and  almost  unperceived  process  of  pyramiding 
values  in  a circle.  Round  and  round  we  go, 
with  the  dollar  constantly  buying  a little  less. 
Now  unless  we  are  willing  to  look  into  this 
undeniable  fact,  find  the  cause,  discover  the 
remedy  and  a[)ply  it,  we  shall  still  fall  short  of 
a real  solution  of  the  housing  problem. 

In  finding  this  secret  the  workers  have  an 
interest  as  vital  as  the  rest  of  us.  The  struggle 
for  higher  wages,  by  itself,  produces  nothing 
save  a highly  stimulated  redistribution  of  labor 
costs,  and  in  the  end  nothing  is  gained.  The 
acute  test  comes  when  we  attempt  to  compete 
in  foreign  markets  or  even  in  our  own,  with 
the  products  of  other  countries  where  wages 
are  lower  and  the  purchasing  power  of  money 
is  higher.  The  usual  remedy  is  to  interpose  a 
tariff  against  foreign  products  coming  into  our 
own  country  and  to  sell  our  own  wares  at  lower 
prices  in  competition  abroad.  But  this  is  only 
another  artificial  makeshift  and  eventually 
breaks  down  of  its  own  weight.  The  tendency 
the  world  over,  as  men  advance,  is  for  values 
to  grow'  towards  a common  parity,  and  this 
tendency  can  no  more  be  resisted  than  can  we 
hope  to  keep  all  rivers  from  coming  eventually 
to  the  same  sea.  A discussion  of  this  phase  of 
economics  seems  far  removed  from  the  housing 
problem,  and  yet  it  bears  inexorably  upon  the 
cpiestion  of  w'ages  and  their  purchasing  powder. 
They  in  their  turn,  bear  wfith  equal  rigor,  upon 
the  question  of  housing. 

Home  Ownership 

It  is  a common  theory  that  every  man  should 
owm  his  owm  home.  A man  once  said  to  the 
waiter  that  he  thought  no  one  ought  to  be 
allow'ed  to  vote  unless  he  did  owm  his  home, 
to  winch  the  rejoinder  was  made:  “Wdiat 

percentage  of  the  people  in  New  York  City  or 
in  any  other  large  city  could  owm  their  homes?” 

Home  owmership  has  its  advantages  and  its 
disadvantages.  In  general  it  might  be  said 
that  the  man  wTo  owms  a home  is  handicapped 
to  a greater  or  lesser  degree.  He  is  put  at  a 
disadvantage  wiien  an  opportunity  presents 
itself.  He  has  a piece  of  property  on  his  hands 
wiiich  he  will  very  likely  be  obliged  to  sacrifice. 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


21 


Often  he  cannot  afford  the  loss  and  so  he  waives 
his  opportunity. 

This  is  particularly  the  case  with  the  work- 
man on  a wage.  Ha^dng  put  his  sa\angs  into  a 
house,  he  feels  that  he  must  stay  with  them. 
Sometimes  he  might  be  able  to  sell  his  house 
at  no  loss  or  even  at  a small  proht,  but  generally 
a loss  has  to  be  taken.  This  disadvantage  to  the 
worker  is  not  the  only  one.  Tied  down  to  a 
house  in  which  he  has  put  his  earnings  he  is 
more  or  less  bereft  of  his  independence.  He 
hesitates  to  oppose  his  employer  on  a matter 
of  wages  or  hours.  Employers,  in  seeking  to 
better  housing  conditions  by  building  houses 
for  sale  to  their  workmen  on  easy  terms,  must 
weigh  carefully  the  likelihood  that  in  periods  of 
disturbance  when  feeling  may  run  high,  they 
may  find  themselves  in  possession  of  a power 
which  will  require  very  careful  handling  in 
order  not  to  be  used  oppressively  and  unfair- 
ly. The  employee  who  has  bought  a house  on 
easy  terms  will  be  handicapped  in  contending 
for  what  he  believes  to  be  his  rights  by  the  fear 
that  his  savings  may  be  lost.  The  history  of 
housing  experience  ought  to  be  very  carefully 
studied  by  any  employer  who  finds  himself 
confronted  with  a house  shortage,  or  a serious 
labor  turnover  due  to  bad  housing  conditions. 

A Complicated  Question 

The  question  of  home  ownership  therefore 
becomes  complicated  with  a host  of  factors 
which  grow  out  of  conditions  set  up  by  modern 
life  and  industrial  practice.  On  the  other  hand, 
many  interesting  and  some  successful  solutions 
have  been  found,  either  on  the  co-operative 
basis  or  through  an  agreement  by  which  the 
employee  is  protected  in  his  investment. 

The  cjuestion  of  renting  houses  comes  broadly 
under  these  same  general  conclusions.  Some 
manufacturers  will  not  sell  their  houses;  others 
will  not  rent  them  if  they  can  possibly  avoid  it. 
But  again,  and  this  cannot  be  too  strongly 
emphasized,  whoever  wishes  to  conduct  a 
housing  enterprise  which  shall  yield  a thorough- 
ly satisfactory  result  and  act  as  a strong  force  in 
stabilizing  labor  employment  and  thus  reducing 
labor  turnover,  the  excessive  cost  of  which  is 


already  a high  premium  exacted  of  our  indus- 
trial practice,  should  carefully  consider  the 
local  habits  and  traditions,  and  then  seek  the 
results  which  have  been  disclosed  by  an  experi- 
ence which  it  is  not  difficult  to  apply  to  any 
specific  problem. 

The  truth  is,  of  course,  that  Governments 
ought  to  interfere,  in  some  manner,  to  prevent 
the  disastrous  results  of  building  speculation. 
This  destroys  building  values  almost  faster  than 
it  creates  them,  in  many  cases,  and  makes  the 
ownershii)  of  a house  a precarious  investment 
for  all  but  a favored  few.  We  need  a great 
stabilizing  influence  in  this  class  of  investment 
so  that  a man  need  not  fear  to  own  a home. 
Other  nations  have  seen  this  as  part  of  the 
problem  and  have  tried  many  experiments. 
Even  in  our  own  country  we  have  seen  the 
Zoning  Principle  a])plied  to  New  York  City  as 
a method  of  checking  the  vast  losses  produced 
by  unbridled  building  speculation.  Unless  we 
are  willing,  as  a nation,  to  adopt  the  principle 
of  developing  our  country  along  lines  of  stabil- 
ity instead  of  handing  it  over  to  be  gambled 
for  as  over  a green  cloth,  we  had  best  save  our 
time  in  studying  the  housing  problem.  Yet  the 
signs  are  not  wanting  that  our  intelligence  is 
being  cpiickened  in  this  direction.  There  is  a 
growing  national  consciousness  of  our  national 
duty.  It  has  been  so  stimulated  by  war  that 
we  may  hope  that  it  will  never  again  subside 
to  its  old  state  of  apathy  and  that  the  housing 
problem  will  thus  be  seen  in  all  its  deep  and 
far-reaching  causes  and  effects. 

The  student  of  the  housing  ciuestion  cannot 
ignore  the  forms  of*  co-operative  ownership 
which  have  been  worked  out  successfully  in 
other  countries.  Under  many  of  these,  the 
ownership  of  the  home  is  represented  not  by 
title  deeds  to  the  property  but  by  shares  of 
stock  in  a community  which  is  owned  in  com- 
mon by  those  who  live  in  it.  The  holder  of  the 
stock  being  entitled  to  the  tenancy  and  use  of 
his  house  and  land  as  long  as  he  lives  and  jmys 
his  taxes,  and  being  also  able  to  leave  the  ten- 
ancy of  the  property  to  his  chosen  heirs,  has 

*See  the  article  on  “Copartnership  'I'enants”  in  tire  Journal 
of  the  American  Institute  of  Architects  for  .\pril,  igiS. 


22 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


all  that  ownership  imj)lies.  On  the  other  hand, 
if  he  wishes  to  leave  he  has  no  difficulty  in  dis- 
posing of  his  shares  of  stock  at  their  full  value, 
and  thus  he  not  only  avoids  any  financial 
sacrifice,  but  he  is  saved  the  long  and  vexatious 
delays  which  generally  attend  uj)on  the  effort 
to  sell  a house. 

He  also  derives  an  income  from  his  stock 
through  the  increase  in  land  value  and  land 
rentals  as  the  community  grows,  and  in  this 
manner  his  cost  of  living,  whether  measured 
in  rent,  or  taxes,  or  both,  is  generally  smaller 
than  under  any  other  system. 

Taxation 

Another  \’exatious  factor  in  the  housing 
question  is  taxation,  although  it  undoubtedly 
is  a jiart  of  the  general  question  of  land  use 
and  (leveloi)ment.  As  long  as  idle  land  is  suc- 
cessfully ])ermitted  to  escaj^e  taxation  while  a 
heavy  tax  is  levied  on  every  building  improve- 
ment, it  is  useless  to  expect  any  consistent 
advance  in  housing.  When  owners  of  tenement 
property  are  discouraged  from  making  needed 
improvements  by  the  knowledge  that  the  tax 
assessor  will  use  them  as  a basis  of  raising 
valuations  and  thus  increasing  taxes,  it  would 
seem  absurd  to  e.x])ect  any  great  change  of 
heart  in  the  owners  of  such  ju'operty. 

Hut,  again,  this  is  a ejuestion  which  we  are, 
as  a nation,  very  unwilling  to  face.  The  time  is 
coming  when  we  cannot  longer  turn  our  backs 
on  it,  for  the  rest  of  the  world  is  slowly  forging 
ahead  of  us  through  the  sheer  economic  ])ressure 
which  increases  with  national  age;  in  the  mean- 
time, it  is  scarcely  possible  to  do  more  than 
point  out  the  fundamental  influence  which 
taxation  has  upon  the  housing  question,  and 
invite  the  serious  student  to  a consideration  of 
what  has  been  done  in  other*  countries. 

What  Kinci  of  H ouses 

Recently  the  statement  was  made  by  a man 
who  ought  to  have  known  better,  that  the 
national  ideal  in  housing  should  be  a house  and 
garden  for  every  family.  It  is  to  such  extreme 

*In  Pittsburgh,  Pennsylvania,  there  has  been  an  effort  to  bring 
about  a change  in  the  method  of  taxing  real  property  by  gradually 
shifting  the  value  from  land  and  buildings  together  to  land  alone. 


views  that  men  rush  in  their  passion  for  reform. 
To  give  each  family  a house  and  garden  would 
be  as  intelligent  as  to  say  that  every  husband 
should  make  his  own  clothes  and  every  wife 
should  bear  twelve  children.  Our  national  plan 
must  make  j)rovision  for  the  kind  of  houses  that 
answer  our  national  mode  of  life.  Those  who 
want  gardens  should  have  them,  and  undoubt- 
edly it  would  be  greatly  to  our  interest  to 
stimulate  a knowledge  and  love  of  gardening 
in  our  schools,  since  gardening  does  not  come 
naturally  like  walking  or  breathing.  Its  advan- 
tages in  healthfulness,  its  possibility  for  deepen- 
ing home  ties,  its  facilities  for  opening  a path 
to  the  creative  instinct  as  ajqflied  to  the  beau- 
tification of  the  home,  are  beyond  dispute.  Yet 
in  the  end  there  will  always  be  a fairly  large 
class  of  ])eople  to  whom  gardening  would  be 
drudgery  of  the  most  slavish  kind.  No  definite 
rule  can  be  laid  down  in  this  matter.  The  house, 
whatever  its  type  should  be,  is  the  point  of 
departure  for  the  development  of  the  individual. 
The  house  is  for  those  who  live  in  it,  for  it  is  not 
houses  that  make  a nation,  but  the  kind  of 
]>eople  that  live  in  them,  are  influenced  by 
them,  are  enriched  by  their  comfort,  or  en- 
slaved and  dragged  down  by  their  discomfort 
and  inhuman  congestion. 

But  adding  to  the  complexity  of  this  problem 
are  the  tendencies  of  the  day.  Here  we  see  a 
marked  growth  toward  the  communizing  or 
centralizing  of  many  forms  of  effort  which 
hitherto  have  been  thought  to  be  sacred  to  the 
individual  home,  central  heating,  central  cook- 
ing, central  laundries,  to  mention  only  a few. 
This  is  a tendency  which  must  steadily  increase 
as  we  travel  towards  a higher  and  higher  degree 
of  democracy,  for  it  is  through  these  centralized 
efforts  that  we  shall  gain  a larger  measure  of 
leisure.  This  has  been  true  in  many  industrial 
lines,  during  the  last  twenty  or  thirty  years,  and 
we  are  now  quite  accustomed  to  the  public 
utility  operated  by  the  Government  or  the 
State  or  the  Municipality.  But  the  war  has 
thrown  down  the  gauntlet  to  the  housekeeper 
as  never  before,  and  we  may  be  almost  certain 
. that  the  house  of  the  future  will  undergo  many 
transformations  which  will  simplify  and  make 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


23 


easier  the  process  of  housekeeping.  No  one 
dares  predict  how  far  these  will  go  or  what  form 
they  will  take,  yet  it  would  be  foolish  not  to 
recognize  this  tendency.  It  would  be  especially 
foolish  to  set  up  and  try  to  maintain  the  theory 
of  the  individual  house  and  garden  for  every- 
body, when  the  strength  of  the  current  is  cer- 
tainly not  wholly  in  this  direction.  The  prob- 
lem of  the  future  will  be  to  maintain  the  in- 
dividuality of  the  house  and  the  intimate  family 
life  which  is  our  basis,  while  still  continually 
reducing  the  amount  of  labor  necessary  to  make 
that  life  comfortable  and  cleanly. 

A Broader  Vision  of  Living 

Much  as  we  may  regret  to  admit  it,  it  is  a 
fact  that  the  “three-decker”  on  which  we  have 
bestowed  so  much  contempt,  is  a housekeeper’s 
paradise  in  comparison  with  thousands  on 
thousands  of  the  small  houses  built  in  recent 
years.  This  process  of  simplification  of  internal 
arrangement,  as  worked  out  in  the  much  de- 
spised three-decker,  is  proceeding  relentlessly. 
It  is  again  a part  of  our  great  national  ambi- 
tion for  recreation  and  amusement,  for  a larger 
measure  of  social  contact,  for  a greater  freedom 
for  individual  development.  Instead  of  remain- 
ing the  ancient  castle  into  which  a man  retired 
and  prepared  to  defend  his  priceless  right  to  sol- 
itude, the  house  is  slowly  coming  to  be  seen  as  a 
part  of  the  machinery  by  which  we  attain  to 
something  that  is  vastly  more  important.  The 
automobile  has  opened  the  world  to  man  as 
it  was  never  opened  before.  How  long  will  it 
be  before  the  aeroplane  vastly  increases  the 
sphere  of  his  journeyings,  with  even  less 
effort  and  expense? 


It  would  seem  to  be  plain,  therefore,  that  it 
is  in  the  power  of  no  one  to  decide  what  types 
of  houses  we  are  to  build  in  solution  of  the 
housing  problem.  The  c[uestion  of  size  is  a 
serious  study  in  itself,  for  the  factor  of  elasticity, 
and  of  making  easy  provision  for  growing 
families,  has  never  received  its  due  share  of 
attention.  Yet  the  house  question  is  a basic 
one  and  is  j^erhaps  the  most  important,  taken 
by  and  large,  with  which  this  country  is  now 
confronted.  In  all  of  our  speculation  as  to  the 
future  of  the  house,  let  us  not  minimize  the  im- 
portance of  the  pressing  problem  now  before 
us.  The  Government  became  involved  in  its 
solution  as  a war  measure.  Some  of  the  things 
which  it  has  done  will  no  doubt  contribute 
much  to  our  own  limited  knowledge  of  the 
problem.  It  is  significant  that  the  Bureau  of 
Housing  of  the  Department  of  Labor  decided 
that  the  Government  would  not  lend  money  to 
others,  in  the  carrying  out  of  its  wartime  hous- 
ing projects,  but  bought  the  land  and  built 
the  houses  as  England  has  done.  This  is  a step 
in  the  right  direction,  since  it  will  leave  the 
Government  free  to  dispose  of  these  properties 
in  whatever  manner  may  best  serve  the  inter- 
ests of  the  nation.  At  the  proper  time,  it  can 
accept  the  war  loss  involved  in  the  present  high 
cost  of  building,  if  there  should  be  any,  with- 
out having  any  complications  with  the  borrow- 
ers of  money,  or  with  the  buyers  of  the  houses, 
since  it  wisely  decided  not  to  sell  any  houses 
during  the  war. 

In  conclusion,  let  us  above  all  remember 
that  the  housing  problem  is  not  a mere  archi- 
tectural or  engineering  cpestion.  It  is  a pro- 
found fundamental  factor  in  our  national  life. 


24 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


Type  11 — 4-room  House 


Typical  Cottages  at  Bayview,  Alabama, 
a Village  Where  Coal  Miners  Enjoy 
All  the  Advantages  of  Modern 
Community  Development 


Type  j-A  House.  Floor  Plan  to  Right 


BAYVIEW,  ALABAMA 


An  ideal  mining  village  established  by 
the  Tennessee  Coal,  Iron  & Railroad 
^ Company,  embracing  200  acres,  and 
housing  500  of  the  com])any’s  coal  mine  em- 
ployees and  their  families. 

Bay  view  has  every  comfort  and  convenience 
of  the  best  ty]3e  of  town,  with  paved  streets  and 
alleys,  concrete  sidewalks,  water,  electric  lights 
and  sanitary  system.  Its  school  and  church 


facilities  are  unsurpassed  in  any  similar  com- 
munity. Parks  and  playgrounds  afford  abun- 
dant recreative  facilities.  Skilled  social  science 
workers  are  regularly  employed  to  instruct 
the  children  of  the  miners  in  all  outdoor  sports. 
A healthy  community  life  is  fostered  on  all 
sides. 

Bayview’s  homes,  schools  and  social  centers 
are  constructed  entirely  of  Southern  pine. 


House  Type  j-P,  Bayview,  Ala. 


Typical  Floor  Plan  of  Double  House 


25 


26 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


Type  I House. 


Type  L House. 


Type  M House 


Type  2 — N House  and  Floor  Plan 


r. 


Other  Types  of  Homes  at  Bayview,  Alabama 


PLANNING  AND  FINANCING  THE  INDUSTRIAL 

HOUSING  PROJECT 

By  ARTHUR  F.  CLOUGH 

PART  ONE 


The  late  war  brought  about  a peculiar 
situation  in  the  development  of  indus- 
trial housing  projects  throughout  the 
United  States.  Because  of  the  increase  in  the 
cost  of  labor  and  building  materials,  as  well  as 
the  decrease  in  the  amount  of  unemployed 
capital  in  the  country,  the  manufacturer,  the 
real  estate  operator  and  the  speculative  builder 
have  become  more  circumspect  in  the  erection 
of  habitations  until  they  are  assured  of  a 
sufficient  return  on  the  money  invested,  either 
in  rents  or  in  an  adequate  profit  on  the  sale  of 
the  property. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  increasing  congestion 
of  labor  in  various  manufacturing  centers 
throughout  the  country,  the  lack  of  decent 
living  quarters  in  many  of  these  centers,  and  the 
higher  wages  which  many  skilled  and  unskilled 
workmen  are  receiving  has  encouraged  the 
ambitious  worker  to  desire  a home  of  his  own. 
Hence,  while  the  demand  for  houses  is  increas- 
ing, the  supply  is  diminishing  — and  the  end  is 
not  yet. 

Housing  and  the  Labor  Turnover 

In  many  communities  the  housing  problem 
is  becoming  so  acute  that  it  is  seriously  affect- 
ing labor  turnover  in  the  big  industrial  interests. 
A quarter  of  a century  ago  or  more  small 
communities  grew  up  about  the  manufacturing 
interests  and  the  prosperity  of  the  community 
depended  upon  the  prosperity  of  its  industries. 

Changing  economic  and  transportation  con- 
ditions have  altered  much  of  this,  and  today 
the  manufacturer  who  chooses  a site  for  his 
plants  unwisely,  or  whose  country  village  has 
grown  to  a fair-sized  city,  finds  a perplexing 


problem  on  his  hands  if  he  is  to  retain  his  labor 
and  operate  his  plant  at  its  maximum  pro- 
ductive capacity.  High  wages  alone  are  not 
sufficient  to  hold  the  most  desirable  class  of 
workers.  They  must  also  find  suitable  living 
conditions  in  the  community  where  they  are 
employed,  and,  failing  that,  will  go  elsewhere, 
even  at  less  money,  where  their  expenditure 
of  time  and  effort  will  bring  them  some  of  the 
comforts  of  life. 

If  the  manufacturer  provides  the  homes  re- 
quired, he  has  to  draw  upon  funds  which  are 
essential  to  the  operation  of  his  plant  and  to  its 
continued  expansion  as  the  needs  of  a growing 
business  demand. 

Problems  for  Prospective  Builders 

In  answering  the  cjuestions  presented,  the 
manufacturer  must  determine  whether  the 
housing  problem  is  a vital  one  in  his  com- 
munity and  to  what  extent  his  continued  busi- 
ness success  depends  upon  it;  he  must  also 
find  out  how,  under  present  conditions,  the 
necessary  funds  for  such  enterprises  can  be 
provided  without  tying  up  necessary  public  or 
private  capital  for  long  periods  of  time. 

When  considering  his  answers  to  these  ques- 
tions the  manufacturer  hears  a great  deal 
about  the  desirability  of  better  housing  accom- 
modations for  workers;  he  learns  that  England 
is  spending  millions  of  dollars  annually  in  an 
effort  to  keep  up  with  the  increasing  demand  for 
homes;  he  knows  that  our  own  Government  dur- 
ing the  war  appropriated  many  more  millions 
to  house  the  shipbuilding  and  ordnance  work- 
ers; he  sees  lengthy  articles  on  the  types  of 
houses  that  are  being  built,  and  he  reads  with 


27 


28 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


interest  of  the  various  selling  schemes  by  which 
these  houses  are  disposed  of  to  the  workers — 
but  in  none  of  this  material  does  he  hnd  a 
suggestion  as  to  how  he  can  determine  the  extent 
of  his  own  need  for  industrial  housing,  or  how 
he  is  going  to  linance  the  i)roject  if  he  finds 
it  a feasible  solution  for  his  labor  troubles. 

The  Manufacturer’s  Questionnaire 

All  of  the  })hases  mentioned  have  their  value 

but  he  is  not  ready  for  them  yet.  First  he 
needs  assurance  of  the  wisdom  of  his  housing 
project,  and  when  con\  inced  of  that  he  must  be 
shown  how  he  is  going  to  do  it.  In  order  to  help 
him  clarify  these  matters  in  his  own  mind,  the 
following  questionnaire  has  been  ])repared: 

1.  Is  there  no  other  solution  for  the  housing  situa- 
tion in  this  community? 

2.  Can  householders  be  induced  to  lower  rents,  con- 
vert residences  into  two-family  or  tenement  houses, 
offer  reasonable  board,  or  take  other  steps  to  encourage 
the  desirable  stranger  to  settle  here  j)ermanentlv? 

3.  Can  contractors,  real  estate  operators  or  others 
be  induced  to  build  and  sell  houses  at  a more  rea.sonable 
cost  in  this  community? 

4.  What  are  the  financial  resources  of  our  workers 
and  other  workers  in  this  locality? 

5.  Can  they  afford  to  purchase  homes  on  their 
present  wages,  or  must  we  raise  salaries  to  enable  them 
to  do  this? 

6.  Which,  of  carious  types  of  workers,  have  most 
difficulty  in  obtaining  proper  housing,  and  which  are 
most  ajit  to  jiLirchase  homes? 

7.  On  what  terms  can  they  afford  to  pay  for  them? 

8.  Will  they  keeji  up  their  jiayments? 

q.  If  they  cannot  keep  uj)  payments  on  the  jiur- 
chase  of  homes,  would  it  be  advisable  to  build  houses 
for  rental  purposes  only? 

10.  Can  we  sell  our  houses  at  cost,  or  must  we  make 
a considerable  profit  on  the  enterprise  to  provide 
against  possible  future  loss. 

11.  .Are  we  taking  this  step  co-operatively  with  our 
employees  because  we  think  it  will  be  of  mutual 
benefit? 

12.  If  not,  what  do  we  e.xpect  to  get  out  of  our 
investment? 

13.  Will  it  bring  us  a more  desirable  class  of  help? 

14.  Will  it  tend  to  reduce  our  labor  turnover? 

I V Will  the  project  savor  of  charitv  or  paternalism? 

16.  Will  it  increase  the  standing  and  good  name  of 
our  organization? 

17.  Will  the  probable  return,  as  a whole,  be  worth 
the  investment? 

18.  Are  our  workers  naturally  gregarious  or  in- 
dividual? 

19.  In  view  of  our  answer  to  the  foregoing  question, 
what  sort  of  housing  would  sell  best? 


20.  How  many  tenement  houses  will  we  need  at  the 
start? 

21.  How  many  two-family  houses  and  cottages? 

22.  How  many,  if  any,  apartment  houses? 

23.  What  will  be  the  average  cost  of  each  of  these 
respective  types? 

24.  Have  we  any  land  available  for  housing  purposes 
or  must  we  purchase  some? 

25.  In  what  condition  is  the  land  and  how  extensive- 
ly must  it  be  improved  by  grading,  sewers,  sidewalks, 
etc.,  before  it  will  meet  with  our  requirements? 

26.  What  improvements  are  absolutely  essential  to 
start  our  project? 

27.  What  will  these  improvements  cost? 

28.  Does  the  natural  contour  of  the  land  lend  itself 
readily  to  any  desired  future  expansion? 

29.  Are  our  plans  extensive  enough  to  provide  for 
this  growth? 

30.  What  is  the  approximate  aggregate  cost  of  the 
[iroject? 

31.  What  is  the  general  public  opinion  about  the 
desirability  of  this  location  as  a residential  section? 

32.  Is  the  property  apt  to  appreciate  or  depreciate 
in  the  course  of  time? 

33.  Are  we  going  to  limit  the  sale  of  houses  to  our 
employees,  or  will  we  take  in  desirable  outsiders  also? 

34.  In  view  of  our  answer  to  questions  7 and  33, 
what  is  the  best  selling  plan? 

35.  Does  this  plan  tie  up  our  money  for  long  periods 
of  time? 

36.  Is  that  advisable  and  can  we  rest  assured  that 
our  business  growth,  or  une.xpected  emergencies,  calling 
for  cash  capital,  will  not  make  it  necessary  for  us  to 
realize  on  a portion,  or  all  of  this  investment  suddenly 
and  at  a loss? 

37.  How  can  we  protect  ourselves  against  such  a 
contingency? 

38.  Last,  and  most  important  of  all  — how,  and 
where,  will  we  get  the  funds  to  finance  this  project  so 
that  the  maximum  amount  of  building  may  be  done 
with  a small  amount  of  capital,  and  the  investment  so 
made  that  the  time  our  money  is  tied  up  in  any  single 
enterprise  be  reduced  to  the  minimum? 

In  answering  these  questions  the  manufac- 
turer will  find  many  subjects  worthy  of  mature 
deliberation.  Among  those  which  will  require 
special  attention  is  the  analysis  of  the  t>q3es  of 
workers  who  will  bu\'  homes  and  the  choice  in 
the  types  of  houses  to  be  built  for  them.  One 
large  Xew  England  concern,  which  built  up  an 
ideal  community  for  its  employees  several 
years  ago,  has  found  difficulty  in  disposing  of 
the  double  or  two-family  type  of  house.  Al- 
though the  personnel  of  their  organization  is 
exceptional,  they  found  the  most  of  their  em- 
ployees reluctant  to  purchase  half  of  a double 
house  for  fear  of  being  forced  into  undue 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


29 


familiarity  with  the  purchasers  of  the  other 
half.  As  a consequence  this  type  of  construc- 
tion has  been  practically  abandoned  in  their 
case. 

Class  Distinction  to  be  Considered 

When  considering  this  ciuestion,  it  is  also 
necessary  to  distinguish  between  the  homes  for 
executives,  clerical  help,  skilled  workmen  and 
unskilled  labor.  Even  in  these  days  of  democ- 
racy, there  still  exists  more  or  less  class  feeling 
and,  in  addition,  the  type  and  quality  of  material 
and  selling  price  must  be  adapted  to  the  means 
of  the  purchaser. 

It  is  desirable  to  weigh  very  seriously  the 
question  of  what  one  expects  to  get  out  of  such 
a project.  While  there  is  no  c^uestion  but  that 
such  enterprises  yield  financial  returns,  and 
good  ones  at  that,  no  exact  statistics  are  avail- 
able; for,  if  the  houses  be  erected  and  sold  at 
cost,  the  greatest  returns  the  manufacturer  will 
get  from  his  investment  lie  in  the  increased  con- 
tentment of  his  workers,  the  reduction  in  his 
labor  turnover  and  the  building  up  of  his  good 
name  as  an  employer.  That  these  things  are 
desirable  and  have  a financial  value  no  one  will 
deny,  but,  because  they  are  abstract  qualities 
rather  than  tangible  ones,  it  is  difficult  to  fix 
even  an  approximate  valuation  for  them.  There 
are  few,  if  any,  instances,  however,  where  such 
projects  have  been  properly  carried  out  that 
have  not  proved  highly  successful. 

Another  query  of  unusual  interest  is  whether 
the  purchaser  will  keep  up  his  payments  or  not. 
Ignoring,  for  the  moment,  the  expense  involved 
in  reselling  the  property  for  the  second  or  third 
time,  we  find  two  distinct  viewpoints  of  this 
question.  On  the  manufacturer’s  side,  it  is 
desirable  to  have  the  terms  of  sale  sufficiently 
rigid  to  prevent  his  workers  from  disposing  of 
their  equity  in  the  property  too  readily  and 
leaving  his  employ  or  the  community. 

The  Right  Sort  of  Contract 

From  the  purchaser’s  standpoint  it  is  unde- 
sirable to  be  tied  up  so  tightly  to  any  concern 
or  community  that  one  cannot  make  a neces- 
sary change  without  suffering  considerable 


financial  loss.  The  right  sort  of  contract  must 
be  one  which  will  reconcile  these  two  extremes 
— that  which  will  be  sufficiently  fluid  to  permit 
the  purchaser  to  dispose  of  his  ecjuity  at  a fair 
price  and  within  a reasonable  time  when  cir- 
cumstances justify  it;  yet  which  will  be  suffi- 
ciently rigid  in  its  application  to  prevent  an 
efficient  worker  from  throwing  up  his  job  and 
becoming  a “floater”  because  of  some  passing 
disagreement  with  his  superior  or  temporary 
disturbance  of  his  working  conditions.  Such  a 
contract  will  enable  the  employer  to  co-operate 
with  his  workmen  at  all  times,  for  if  a worker 
gets  into  such  financial  difficulties  that  he  is 
compelled  to  realize  on  his  equity  in  his  home, 
the  employer  can  help  him  dispose  of  it  and 
do  so  without  the  usual  loss  which  attends 
the  average  sacrifice  of  valuable  real  estate 
interests.  In  this  way  he  maintains  his  good 
name  as  an  employer  and  adds  further  laurels 
to  his  reputation  for  fair  dealing. 

The  Question  of  Financing 

If  the  manufacturer,  after  careful  deliberation 
of  the  foregoing  questions,  has  decided  to  go 
ahead  with  his  project  and  has  determined  upon 
the  approximate  amount  of  capital  necessary 
to  carry  it  through,  before  he  can  start  opera- 
tions he  must  provide  the  funds  to  finance  it, 
and  here  is  where  his  real  troubles  begin. 

Save  in  a few  instances,  most  manufacturers 
today  are  utilizing  their  funds  in  e.xpanding 
their  productive  capacity  or  meeting  their  in- 
creased operating  expenses,  hence  have  little 
or  no  unemployed  capital.  When  they  go  to  the 
banks  they  find  them  averse  to  tying  up  large 
amounts  of  money  for  long  terms.  If  they  try 
to  obtain  municipal  or  state  aid,  they  find 
restrictions  limiting  the  purposes  and  amounts 
for  which  bonds  may  be  issued.  Should  they 
turn  to  their  own  workmen  or  the  small  in- 
vestor, they  will  find  that  the  increased  cost  of 
living  has  left  them  with  a very  small  amount 
of  money  available  for  further  investments. 
The  final  resource  seems  to  be  the  Federal 
Government  — yet  here  the  manufacturer  finds 
that  there  is  no  adequate  legislation  to  pro- 
vide for  his  housing  needs. 


30 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


'Fhe  problem  seems  unsol vable  — and  in 
many  cases  it  will  continue  to  be  unsolvable  — 
until  the  Government  takes  a hand  and  i)rovides 
the  necessary  financial  aid  in  certain  com- 
munities where  the  housing  needs  are  vital  ones. 
However,  before  the  manufacturer  turns  to  the 
(iovernment  in  these  days  he  should  exhaust 
all  other  possibilities. 

Some  Suggestions  of  Finance 

'fhe  following  methods  of  financing  industrial 
housing  projects  are  offered  as  suggestions  only. 
Some  of  them  have  been  tried  out  and  have 
I>roved  successful.  Others  exist  in  theory  only, 
yet  might  be  made  practical  under  the  right 
conditions  and  with  the  right  sort  of  organiza- 
tion and  promotion.  Because  of  the  variations 
of  the  laws  in  the  different  states,  they  are 
offered  without  regard  to  their  legal  aspects. 
If  the  method  seems  feasible,  it  will  be  in- 
cumbent upon  the  manufacturer’s  legal  depart- 
ment to  adaj^t  it  to  the  particular  laws  of  the 
community  or  state. 

Method  1 

Capital  supplied  from  the  nuviufactiirer's  reserve  or 

surplus. 

A prominent  Massachusetts  organization  has  suc- 
cessfully financed  and  operated  an  industrial  housing 
project  by  the  following  method.  They  first  formed  a 
separate  corporation  to  handle  the  real  estate,  stock  of 
which  was  held  by  the  Comfrany,  and  advanced  the 
initial  funds  to  finance  the  improvement  of  the  land 
and  erection  of  the  houses.  When  the  houses  were  com- 
pleted and  sold,  the  purchaser  made  a cash  payment  of 
ten  per  cent  of  the  purchase  price,  gave  the  Companv 
a 1 2-year  note  for  $i,ooo  and  a demand  note  for  the 
balance  of  the  j)urchase  price.  Both  notes  were  se- 
cured by  a mortgage  on  the  property.  To  further 
secure  the  payment  of  the  first  note,  a special  agree- 
ment was  made  whereby  the  purchaser  convenanted 
that  he  would  purchase  five  shares  in  a co-operative 
bank  approved  of  by  the  company,  and  assign  his 
bank  holdings  to  the  Company.  In  the  banks  approved 
by  the  Company,  five  shares  at  five  per  cent  matured  in 
12  years  and  two  months  to  the  sum  of  $i,ooo.  Since 
the  majority  of  the  banks  have  always  paid  over  five 
per  cent  interest,  maturities  have  invariably  been 
well  within  the  12  years. 

If  the  purchaser  was  under  60  years  of  age  and 
passed  a satisfactory-  physical  examination  by  the 
Company’s  physician,  the  Company  also  agreed  that, 
in  case  of  the  death  or  total  disability  of  the  purchaser 
at  any  time  during  or  before  the  expiration  of  the  12- 


year  period,  it  would  accept  the  surrender  value  of  his 
co-operative  bank  holdings  at  the  time  of  death  or 
total  disability  in  full  satisfaction  of  the  time  note  of 
$1,000;  and  it  further  agreed  that  it  would  not  make 
demand  upon  the  demand  note  as  long  as  the  purchaser 
was  not  in  default  under  the  terms  of  his  mortgage  or 
under  the  terms  of  his  agreement  relative  to  the  co- 
operative bank  investment. 

Monthly  rental  charges  were  computed  on  the  basis 
of  1/12  of  five  per  cent  interest  on  90  per  cent  of  the 
purchase  price  — to  be  reduced  after  12  years  when  the 
$1,000  maturing  in  the  co-operative  savings  bank  was 
applied  on  the  principal.  Taxes,  water  rates,  insurance, 
etc.,  were  taken  care  of  by  the  purchaser. 

In  a supplementary  contract  the  purchaser  agreed 
that  he  would  not  convey  his  equity  in  the  property  to 
a third  party  without  first  offering  said  equity  to  the 
Company  on  the  same  terms  which  the  said  third  party 
was  prepared  to  offer. 

The  following  table  shows  clearly  the  factors  involved 
in  the  sale  of  house  and  land  worth  $3,851.50: 


Total  purchase  price $3,851 . 50 

First  payment  of  10  per  cent 385. 15 

Balance  loaned  on  mortgage 3,466.35 

Amount  due  in  12  years,  secured  by  time 

note 1,000.00 

Balance  secured  by  time  note 2,466.35 

iMonthly  interest  (rent)  during  the  first  12 

years 14 -45 

Monthly  payments  on  5 co-operative  bank 

shares 5 • 00 

Total  monthly  payments  during  first  12 

.vears 19.45 

Monthly  interest  payment  after  12  years.  . 10.30 


Total  loan $3,466.35 

Five  per  cent 173.32 

I 12  (rental  charge) ... . 14 -45 

Demand  loan 2,466.35 

Five  per  cent 123.32 

I /i 2 (rental  charge) ... . 10.30 


The  purchase  price  on  the  property  represented  the 
actual  cost  of  the  house,  land  and  improvements  with- 
out profit  to  the  Company,  this  including  the  expense 
of  building,  heating,  lighting,  plumbing,  piping,  hard- 
ware, fixtures,  papering,  window  shades,  screens, 
concrete  cellar  floor,  granolithic  walks,  rough  grading, 
finish  grading,  planting  and  clothes  reel. 

Advantages. — The  Company’s  money  is  fuUy 
secured  and  the  purchaser’s  equit}"  fully  protected. 
The  contract  is  fair  to  both  parties,  affording  the 
company  an  opportunity  to  control  the  resale  of  the 
property  if  it  so  desires  and  affording  the  purchaser 
an  opportunity  to  dispose  of  the  property  at  a profit, 
should  the  occasion  require.  This  fluidity  in  the  dis- 
position of  the  purchaser’s  equity  has  always  been 
considered  as  highly  desirable  and  the  foregoing 
arrangements  seem  to  protect  the  interests  of  all. 
The  low  monthly  payments  (totaling  $19.45  in  the 
example  given)  place  the  purchase  of  a home  within 


31 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


the  reach  of  the  average  workingman.  The  purchaser 
is  protected  in  case  of  death  or  disability,  and  all 
appearance  of  charity  or  paternalism  is  avoided  by 
permitting  the  purchaser  to  make  his  periodical  pay- 
ments to  the  co-operative  bank  rather  than  the  Com- 
pany. At  the  end  of  twelve  years  the  purchaser  can 
transfer  the  mortgage  for  the  balance  of  the  purchase 
price  to  other  hands,  if  he  so  desires,  and  thus  become 
independent  of  the  Company’s  interest. 

Disadvantages. — The  company  has  to  advance 
the  money  to  finance  the  project.  Its  funds  are  tied 
up  for  a period  of  twelve  years  or  more.  The  plan 
makes  no  provision  for  the  worker  who  cannot  pay 
down  lo  per  cent  of  the  purchase  price  and  suggests  no 
method  by  which  he  would  be  encouraged  to  save  up 
this  amount. 

Method  2 

Philanthropy  and  5 per  cent. 

This  plan,  which  is  popularly  known  by  the  above 
title,  was  originated  by  General  George  M.  Sternberg 
in  1897,  when  he  organized  the  Washington  Sanitary 
Improvement  Company.  It  affords  corporations  and 
individuals  actuated  by  philanthropic  motives  an 
opportunity  to  provide  funds  for  the  relief  of  civic  or 
community  congestion  and,  at  the  same  time,  realizes 
a conservative  but  safe  return  on  their  investment. 

Originally  limited  by  its  charter  to  a capital  stock  of 
$500,000,  by  investing  its  surplus  in  houses  and  by 
borrowing  money  upon  its  real  estate  it  has  been  able 
to  increase  its  usefulness,  and  the  assets  of  the  com- 
pany now  amount  to  nearly  $1,000,000,  with  an 
indebtedness  of  $225,000. 

Houses  are  built  for  rental  purposes  only,  as  it  was 
felt  that  their  sale  would  take  them  out  of  the  Com- 
pany’s control  and  there  would  be  no  way  of  getting  rid 
of  objectionable  occupants. 

Rents  are  figured  on  9 per  cent  gross  income  on  total 
cost  for  eleven  months’  rent.  This  allows  5 per  cent 
for  dividends  to  stockholders;  2 per  cent  for  taxes, 
agent’s  commission  and  exterior  repairs,  and  2 per  cent 
for  the  surplus  fund.  Under  the  Company’s  charter, 
dividends  are  limited  to  5 per  cent. 

Interior  repairs  are  provided  for  by  a rebate  system, 
the  twelfth  month’s  rent  going  for  repairs,  if  necessary; 
and  if  not,  going  to  the  tenant  as  a reward  for  his  care 
of  the  property.  The  average  rentals  range  from  $7.50 
to  $12  a month. 

Advantages. — The  chief  advantage  to  industry  lies 
in  the  relieving  of  the  manufacturer  from  the  invest- 
ment of  funds  needed  in  other  activities.  The  fact 
that  rents  can  be  made  lower  when  houses  are  not 
built  for  sale  would  also  be  an  advantage  to  industries 
employing  unskilled  and  consequently  poorly  paid 
labor. 

Disadvantages. — The  funds  are  tied  up  indefinitely 
and,  furthermore,  at  this  time  money  for  philanthropic 
enterprises  is  not  as  plentiful  as  it  was  some  years  ago, 
and  the  industrial  interest  relying  upon  such  aid  may 
find  it  a rather  elusive  source  of  capital.  In  addition. 


for  the  skilled  workmen,  receiving  a fair  wage,  the 
project  savors  too  much  of  charity,  and  his  self- 
respect  causes  him  to  resent  it  as  a reflection  on  his 
ability  to  earn  a decent  living. 

Method  3 

Housing  projects  financed  by  private  enterprise,  or  ^Hlome 
Building  Corporations,"  and  sold  at  low  (?)  cost  to 
workers  on  a long  term  basis. 

Advantages. — The  greatest  advantage  of  this 
method  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  relieves  the  manufacturer 
from  the  necessity  of  investing  his  own  funds  in  the 
project. 

Disadvantages. — This  method  usually  has  many 
grave  disadvantages,  chief  of  which  is  the  fact  that 
such  “building  corporations”  are  usually  money- 
making schemes,  run  for  a profit  by  professional  real 
estate  operators,  and  the  terms  of  sale  are  such  that  a 
purchaser,  in  addition  to  paying  a round  price  for  his 
“installment-plan”  house,  gets  poor  material  and  work- 
manship and  stands  to  lose  a substantial  sum,  if  not  all 
of  his  scanty  savings,  when  he  is  compelled  to  dispose 
of  it. 

Method  4 

The  capital  loaned  by  banks  or  trust  co?n panics  on  security 
furnished  by  the  manufacturer  until  the  property  is 
disposed  of  when  the  bank  takes  a jirst  mortgage  on  it, 
arranging  for  repayment  by  long-term  notes. 

Advantages. — This  plan  has  the  merit  of  simplicity 
and  it  relieves  the  manufacturer  from  the  necessity  of 
putting  up  his  own  capital.  In  place  of  it  he  offers  his 
plants  or  other  property  as  collateral  until  the  houses 
are  erected  and  sold  to  his  workmen,  then  turns  a first 
mortgage  on  the  property  over  to  the  bank  to  replace 
his  collateral,  which  is  released  for  other  uses. 

Disadvantages. — Few  manufacturers  would  care 
to,  or  have  the  power  to  take  such  a step.  Such  a plan 
would  have  to  be  very  carefully  worked  out,  with  strict 
regard  to  its  legal  aspects,  and  care  taken  to  protect  the 
bank’s  money  in  every  way.  Details  regarding  the 
amount  paid  down  on  the  purchase  of  a home,  and 
subsequent  monthly  payments,  interest,  etc.,  could  be 
a modification  of  those  outlined  in  Method  i. 

Method  5 

Housing  projects  jinanced  by  public  subscription. 

Under  this  plan  a corporation  is  formed  by  the  local 
manufacturers  and  business  men  of  the  community  for 
the  purpose  of  financing  the  erection  and  sale  of  houses 
at  cost,  on  a low  margin  of  profit.  Shares  can  be 
issued  and  disposed  of  in  the  following  manner:  iSIem- 
bers  of  the  corporation  can  subscribe  to  them  on  a 
pro-rata  basis,  according  to  the  amount  of  housing 
each  one  intends  to  do;  shares  can  be  offered  and  sold 
to  the  public  if  the  appeal  is  made  to  the  investors  of 
the  community  on  the  ground  that  it  is  a civic  duty  to 
supjiort  such  a project  and  thereby  promote  the  wel- 


32 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


fare  and  reirulation  of  the  municiirality;  shares  of 
small  denomination  could  he  issued  and  sold  to  work- 
men under  an  agreement  permitting  the  purchaser  to 
convert  his  shares  into  an  ecjuity  in  a home  when  their 
valuation  was  sufficient  to  erpial  lo  per  cent  of  the 
purchase  price  on  the  property  he  desired.  By  this 
method  many  men  who  would  otherwise  never  pur- 
chase homes  would  be  encouraged  to  save  their  monev 
and  invest  it  in  property,  a certain  portion  of  working 
capital  would  always  be  available  and  the  burden  of 
financing  the  housing  activities  in  the  community 
would  be  fairly  equally  distributed. 

.\i)V.\NT.w,Es. — d'he  manufacturer  who  has  only  a 
few  houses  to  erect  receives  as  good  a price  on  the  work 
as  his  associate  who  has  many  to  construct.  He  is 
relieved  from  the  necessity  of  bearing  the  whole  burden 
or  ex])ense  of  financing  his  project.  He  encourages 
many  men  to  invest  small  amounts  of  money  in  the 
community  before  they  have  reached  the  point  where 
they  can  pay  down  lo  per  cent  of  the  purchase  price  on 
a home,  giving  them  a definite  reason  to  be  thrifty  anrl 
thereby  stabilizing  his  lalx)r.  He  is  able  to  erect  and 
sell  houses  at  cost,  or  very  near  cost,  and  the  awakened 
public  interest  and  civic  pride  will  enable  him  to  take 
care  of  future  housing  j)roblems  much  more  readily. 

Dis.adv.vnt.'lGes. — 'I'he  chief  difficulty  would  lie  in 
persuading  the  moneyed  men  to  invest  in  the  enter- 
prise outside  of  the  interests  which  would  directly 
gain  by  the  better  housing  of  their  emj)loyees,  owing  to 
the  low  returns  necessary  on  any  funds  so  emj)loyed. 

Method  6 

Housing  alter  prises  financed  by  the  sale  of  shares  to 
an  ployees. 

This  is  in  effect  the  same  plan  as  outlined  in  Method 
5,  save  that  an  outside  corj)oration  is  formed  bv  the 
Company,  which  holcls  a j)ortion  of  the  shares,  the 
remainder  being  issued  in  small  denominations  and 
sold  to  employees,  who,  when  they  have  accumulated 
sufficient  valuation,  e.xchange  them  for  an  equitv  in  a 
home,  equal  to  a given  percentage  of  the  purchase  price. 

.\dv.-\nt.\ges. — Its  chief  advantage  lies  in  the  en- 
couragement of  thrift  among  the  employees  of  an 
organization  and  the  consequent  stabilizing  of  labor 
which  will  ensue  from  the  worker’s  ha\'ing  even  a small 
amount  of  money  invested  in  the  community.  An 
adaptation  of  this  plan  would  overcome  one  of  the 
objections  to  Method  i — where  no  encouragement  to 
sa\'e  is  held  out  to  the  worker  who  has  not  accumulated 
sufficient  to  pay  flown  ten  per  cent  of  the  purchase 
price. 

Dis.vdv.vxt.ages. — Only  a small  portion  of  the  bur- 
den of  expense  in  financing  his  housing  project  would 
be  thus  taken  from  the  manufacturer’s  shoulders  by 
this  method.  Furthermore,  its  success  would  be 
problematical  save  in  very  large  organizations  emplo}-- 
ing  several  thousand  workers.  Another  difficulty 
would  be  found  in  the  fact  that  many  workers  have 
their  small  savings  tied  up  in  Liberty  Bonds  at  the 
present  time. 


Method  7 

Housing  projects  jinanced  by  the  issuance  of  municipal 
bonds. 

A])V.ant.\ge.s. — Any  plan  of  this  kind  would  relieve 
the  manufacturer  of  a part,  if  not  the  whole,  of  the 
ex])ense  involved  in  housing  his  employees  and,  from 
that  standpoint,  seems  desirable.  From  the  city’s 
viewpoint  it  would  tend  to  stabilize  real  estate  value, 
increase  the  amount  of  taxable  j)roperty  and  permit 
municipal  control  of  the  various  imj)rovements  so  as 
not  to  depreciate  other  property. 

1 )iSADV.\NTAGES. — Federal  restrictions  j)rohibit  the 
issuance  of  municipal  bonds  beyond  certain  limits 
without  the  consent  of  the  Government.  Whether  this 
consent  could  be  gained  or  not  is  problematical,  but  it 
would  undouljtedly  be  worth  the  effort  in  communities 
where  the  housing  needs  are  urgent  ones.  There  is  also 
a question  as  to  how  banks  and  investors  would  look 
uj)on  bonds  issued  for  such  a purpose. 

Method  8 

Industrial  housing  projects  financed  by  the  State. 

In  igii,  the  Massachusetts  Legislature  created  a 
Homestead  Commission  whose  avowed  j)urpose  was 
to  use  public  funds  for  assisting  workers  and  others 
in  acquiring  homes  in  the  suburbs  of  cities  and 
towns. 

Such  a bill  was  reported  by  the  commission  in  1912, 
but  was  not  uiffield  by  the  Supreme  Court,  which  de- 
clared that  the  use  of  public  funds,  or  any  funds  over 
which  the  public  had  control,  for  such  purposes  was 
unconstitutional,  and  it  was  not  until  the  latter  part  of 
1915,  that  an  amendment  making  such  appropriations 
constitutional  was  finally  approved  by  the  Legislature 
and  ratified  by  the  voters  in  the  State  election  bv 
a majority  of  nearly  3 to  i. 

Another  wait  then  ensued  for  lack  of  funds  to  carrv 
on  the  work,  but  in  1917  the  Legislature,  by  Chapter 
310  of  the  General  ,\cts,  made  available  to  the  Home- 
stead Commission  an  appropriation  of  $50,000  for  a 
demonstration  or  experiment  in  the  construction  of 
homes  within  the  means  of  low-paid  workers. 

After  careful  consideration  the  commission  selected 
Lowell,  Mass.,  as  the  community  for  its  initial  ac- 
tivities, largely  because  of  its  nearness  to  Boston,  its 
numerous  and  varied  industries  with  a considerable 
body  of  low-paid  workers,  its  suitable  available  lands, 
and  the  cordial  co-operation  with  the  commission  of  the 
city  authorities.  Board  of  Trade  and  citizens. 

A plot  of  land  has  been  selected  and  plans  laid  out 
for  about  thirty  houses,  costing  from  $1,952.85  to 
$2,381.65.  The  erection  of  12  houses  was  begun  October 
16,  1917.  All  the  houses  are  of  frame  construction  and 
the  workmanship  is  superior  to  that  usually  done  on 
contract  or  houses  built  by  speculative  builders.  Each 
house  has  cemented  cellar,  ventilated  attic,  bath, 
water-closet,  washbowl,  hot  and  cold  water,  one  set 
wash-tub,  electric  light  and  gas  connection  for  kitchen 
gas  range.  Heating  is  intended  to  be  by  range,  with 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


33 


provision  for  additional  stoves,  unless  the  purchaser 
chooses  to  put  in  a heating  system.  The  main  thor- 
oughfare of  the  community,  Homestead  Road,  has 
been  accepted  by  the  City  of  Lowell  as  a public  way 
and  is  being  surfaced  and  equipped  with  sewers,  water, 
sidewalks,  trees,  electricity  and  gas. 

It  was  originally  expected  that  these  houses  would 
cost  about  $2,000,  but  the  recent  rise  in  the  prices  of 
materials,  labor,  etc.,  has  made  it  impossible  to  provide 
them  at  that  figure. 

The  selling  plan  has  been  carefully  worked  out  and, 
in  addition  to  providing  for  the  proper  upkeep  and  use 
of  the  property,  has  a requirement  stipulating  that 
when  a sale  is  desired  the  property  shall  first  be  offered 
to  the  Homestead  Commission.  It  is  hoped  in  this  way 
to  stabilize  values  and  prevent  property  from  dete- 
riorating. 

The  lowest  terms  upon  which  it  was  found  that 
property  could  be  sold  with  safety  was  with  a small 
cash  payment  and  a nine  per  cent  gross  income  on  the 
balance  remaining  unpaid,  divided  into  monthly 
installments.  This  figures  out  to  approximately  75 
cents  per  month  on  each  $100  of  the  face  value  of  the 
mortgage.  Thus,  if  the  indebtedness  remaining  after 
the  initial  payment  amounted  to  $2,000,  the  monthly 
installments  would  be  $15;  if  the  indebtedness  was 
$2,200,  the  monthly  payment  w'ould  be  $16.50,  and  for 
$2,400,  it  would  be  $18.00  a month. 

The  commission  consists  of  the  director  of  the 
Bureau  of  Statistics,  the  bank  commissioner,  the  presi- 


PART 

Within  the  last  few  years  many  communities 
have  awakened  to  the  need  of  greater  and 
better  industrial  housing  accommodations  for 
their  workers,  and  before  outlining  the  ideal 
method  for  financing  such  projects,  it  might 
be  Well  to  consider  for  a moment  some  of  the 
enterprises  which  are  already  under  way.  Part 
One  of  this  article  discussed  some  of  the  meth- 
ods by  which  projects  could  be  financed.  Since 
the  majority  of  these  schemes  seemed  to  point 
toward  the  raising  of  funds  by  the  co-operation 
of  the  industrial  interests  with  the  citizens  in 
any  given  community,  the  following  examples 
are  typical  of  the  means  by  which  this  is  being 
worked  out  in  various  sections  of  the  country. 
They  are  not  offered  as  the  solution  of  any 
particular  housing  problem,  but  merely  as 
proof  of  the  success  of  this  kind  of  co- 
operation. 


dent  of  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  College,  one 
member  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  (to  be  elected  by 
the  board),  and  three  other  persons,  to  be  selected  by 
the  Governor,  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the 
Council. 

It  is  vested  with  the  authority  to  take  or  purchase 
in  behalf  of  and  in  the  name  of  the  commonwealth  a 
tract  or  tracts  of  land  for  the  purpose  of  relieving  con- 
gestion of  population  anfl  providing  homesteads  or 
small  houses  and  j)lots  of  ground  for  mechanics, 
laborers,  wage-earners  of  any  kind,  or  others,  citizens 
of  the  commonwealth;  and  may  hold,  improve,  sub- 
divide, build  upon,  sell,  repurchase,  manage  and  care 
for  such  land  and  the  buildings  constructed  thereon  in 
accordance  with  such  terms  and  conditions  as  it  may 
determine  upon. 

While  the  project  has  not  yet  reached  the 
point  where  its  success  or  failure  can  be  accu- 
rately predicted,  there  seem  to  be  no  substantial 
reasons  why  it  should  not  work  out  satisfac- 
torily. Undoubtedly,  in  the  light  of  accumu- 
lated experience,  slight  modifications  may  be 
made  in  the  original  plan  of  the  commission, 
but  they  are  taking  a step  in  the  right  direction, 
and  those  concerned  with  industrial  housing 
problems  will  watch  their  progress  with  no 
small  degree  of  interest. 


TWO 

Flint,  Mich. 

The  need  of  increased  housing  accommodations 
brought  about  the  formation  of  a “civic  building  com- 
pany.” Plans  were  originally  made  for  3000  houses, 
and  up  to  March,  1918,  138  of  them  had  been  com- 
pleted and  sold.  The  selling  plan  called  for  a payment 
of  10  per  cent  of  the  purchase  price  when  the  sale  was 
made  and  i per  cent  a month  thereafter  until  the 
property  was  paid  for.  Interest  charges  are  7 per  cent 
annually  and  the  monthly  payment  of  i per  cent  in- 
cludes the  interest  charge  on  the  investment,  so  that 
the  payment  on  princi{)al  and  interest  are  simultaneous. 

Coatesville,  Pa. 

One  hundred  volunteers,  each  of  whom  pledged 
himself  to  take  $r,ooo  worth  of  stock,  organized  the 
Coatesville  Housing  Company.  No  cash  first  payments 
are  required  in  the  sale  of  a house,  the  purchaser 
obtaining  a first  mortgage  on  the  property  from  the 
building  and  loan  association  and  permitting  the 
housing  company  to  carry  a second  mortgage  for  the 
balance  of  the  purchase  price.  By  an  insurance  clause 
the  company  also  agrees,  in  case  of  the  purchaser’s 


34 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


death  before  the  first  mortgage  is  cancelled,  to  take  up 
the  second  mortgage  so  that  the  home  is  not  lost  to 
the  survivors,  the  family  continuing  to  pay  a low  rent 
on  the  property  until  the  building  and  loan  mortgage  is 
liquidated. 

Williamsport,  Pa. 

d'he  VVilliamsj)ort  Improvement  Company  was 
organized  by  the  Board  of  Trade  with  an  authorized 
capital  of  $1,000,000,  on  which  at  least  $500,000  in 
bona  fide  subscriptions  was  re(|uired  in  order  to  make 
all  the  subscriptions  binding.  The  stock-selling 
campaign  lasted  one  week,  at  the  end  of  which  time 
public-spirited  citizens  had  over-subscribed  the  neces- 
sary amount.  It  is  j)roposed  to  build  at  least  320 
homes  and,  to  make  sure  that  benefit  will  inure  to  the 
public,  dividends  u[)on  the  caj)ital  stock  were  limited 
to  6 per  cent  per  annum,  accumulative. 

Waukesha,  Wis. 

Here  the  city  manufacturers  combined  to  form  the 
“Manufacturers’  Building  Association,’’  with  a capital 
stock  of  $100,000;  secured  oj)tions  on  land;  contracted 
for  building  material,  and  are  erecting  small  houses  to 
rent  and  sell  at  prices  within  the  reach  of  the  common 
laborer. 


In  considering  the  various  methods  so  far 
suggested,  it  will  be  found  that  there  are  de- 
sirable features  in  many  of  them,  but  that  no 
one  combines  enough  of  these  features  to  make 
it  the  ideal  plan.  In  developing  this  ideal 
method,  however,  it  must  be  remembered  that 
laws,  conditions  and  reciuirements  vary  in 
different  communities.  Therefore,  all  that  can 
be  done  is  to  suggest  the  points  considered  most 
essential  and  leave  it  to  the  promoter  of  the 
project  to  adapt  it  to  his  particular  needs. 

Primarily,  the  housing  problem  is  of  interest 
to  every  right-minded  citizen  and  the  expense 
of  such  a project  in  any  given  community  should 
be  shared  by 

The  industrial  interests. 

B.  d’he  city  government. 

C.  The  business  organizations. 

I).  Contractors  who  reap  a profit  on  the  construction 
work. 

E.  Business  men  and  other  public-spirited  citizens. 

F.  The  working  classes  themselves,  who  derive 

direct  benefit  from  such  activities. 


35 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


With  a proper  appreciation  of  this  fact 
and  the  right  sort  of  campaign,  the  man- 
ufac  turer  will  find  here  a ready  source 
of  funds  to  supplement  his  own  capital  in 
the  promotion  of  building  operations.  In 
order  to  harmonize  all  of  the  various  in- 
vesting elements  to  whom  he  must  appeal, 
he  may  find  it  advisable  to  proceed  in  the 
following  order : 

First,  he  should  take  the  matter  up  with  the 
other  industrial  interests  of  the  community 
and  endeavor  to  combine  their  financial  re- 
sources to  mutual  advantage  in  the  promotion 
of  better  housing. 

Second,  if  several  can  be  found  who  agree 
on  this  need,  even  though  the  building  opera- 
tions are  to  be  scattered  in  various  parts  of  the 
city,  they  should  get  together  and  form  a 
Co-operative  Housing  Association,  designed  to 
erect,  rent  or  sell  low-cost  houses  on  easy  terms 
to  the  workers  of  the  community. 

Third,  efforts  should  also  be  made  to  interest 


the  other  investing  factors  of  the  community 
in  the  order  given  above. 

Fourth,  the  charter  of  the  fVssociation  should 
be  carefully  drawn  up  so  as  to  embody  as  many 
desirable  features  as  possible.  In  considering 
the  nature  of  this  charter  it  should  be  borne  in 
mind  that  the  Association  is  not  formed  pri- 
marily as  a profit-making  institution,  but  that 
all  of  its  shareholders  have  an  equality  of  inter- 
est which  entitles  them  to  share  ecjually  in  all 
its  benefits. 

Fifth,  the  type  of  organization  which  best 
meets  these  recjuirements  is  apparently  a com- 
bination of  the  old  joint-stock  company  and  the 
more  modern  corporation,  embodying  the  most 
desirable  features  of  the  joint-stock  organiza- 
tion, yet  also  deriving  the  benefits  which  come 
from  incorporation.  Under  this  plan,  we  have 
a joint-stock  corporation,  wherein  an  indeter- 
minate number  of  individuals  voluntarily  asso- 
ciate for  the  purpose  of  providing  capital  for  a 
given  enterprise;  the  capital  being  divided  into 


36 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


transferable  shares,  ownershij)  of  which  is  a 
condition  of  membership.  The  essential  advan- 
tages of  this  form  of  organization  would  be  as 
follows : 

1.  There  is  an  equality  of  interest. 

2.  It  is  not  run  for  a profit. 

'file  capital  stock  is  divided  into  equal  shares. 

4.  These  are  readily  transferable,  and  transfers  can 
be  made  without  the  consent  of  the  other  members. 

5.  The  iiossession  of  a ftiven  number  of  shares 
indicates  the  owner’s  part  in  the  income  (dividends 
or  interest)  of  the  enterprise. 

6.  .\11  share  in  the  benefits  proportionately,  since 
there  is  no  preferred  nor  cumulative  preferred  stock. 

7.  d'he  clement  of  incoiqioration  removes  the  in- 
dividual liability  or  financial  risk  by  giving  the  body  an 
impersonal  standing,  thus  jirotecting,  as  far  as  possible, 
the  interests  of  the  smallest  investor. 

8.  d'his  form  of  organization  results  in  greater 
financial  stability,  since  the  interests  of  all  are  equally 
bound  up  in  it,  thereby  carrying  a stronger  appeal  to 
the  investor. 

Q.  d'he  sale  of  a large  number  of  transferable  shares 
permits  of  a wide  distribution  of  the  exjiense  of  the 
project,  while  the  tle.xibility  of  stock  transfer  gives  the 
fluidity  desired  to  protect  the  interests  of  all  at  all  times. 

10.  It  provides  the  principle  of  association,  not  onlv 
to  capital  Init  also  to  management,  for  the  investors 
can  elect  directors  or  a board  of  management  to  conduct 
the  operations  and  administer  the  collective  jiroperty 
of  the  corporation. 

11.  Stock  can  be  e.xchanged  for  an  equity  in  the 
property  of  the  corporation. 

12.  Future  growth  and  its  consequent  necessity  for 
an  increased  capitalization  can  be  taken  care  of  in  two 
ways  — either  by  a reorganization  of  the  corporation; 
or,  if  so  jirovided  in  the  charter,  by  a majority  vote  of 
the  stockholders  to  issue  additional  capital  stock  to 
the  amount  required.  If  it  is  desired  to  insure  still 
further  against  over-capitalization  or  stock  manipu- 
lation for  profit  by  the  management,  each  stockholder 
can  be  limited  to  but  one  vote,  irrespective  of  the  num- 
ber of  shares  owned.  This  would  be  apt  to  jirove  objec- 
tionable, however,  in  communities  where  the  stock  is 
held  by  some  hundreds  or  thousands  of  in\  estors,  owing 
to  its  unwieldiness  and  the  difficulty  of  convincing 
many  uninformed  investors  of  the  necessity  of  increased 
capitalization. 

Sixth,  bearing  in  mind  the  desirability  of 
making  the  investment  as  stable  and  attractive 
as  ]iossible  to  all  investors,  and  having  deter- 
mined the  extent  and  cost  of  the  proposed  initial 
housing  operations,  it  would  be  necessary  to 
fix  the  annual  returns  recpiired  to  pay  a fair 
dividend  to  the  investors,  take  care  of  taxes, 
upkeep  and  operating  expenses  and  have  enough 
left  over  to  go  toward  a surplus  or  reserve  fund. 


Limitations  Upon  Annual 
Dividends 

Delinite  limitations  should  be  set  upon  the 
annual  dividends,  and,  in  most  cases,  if 
houses  are  to  be  sold  at  cost,  they  should 
be  ranged  from  5 per  cent  to  7 per  cent 
of  the  amount  subscribed.  Added  to  this,  of 
course,  is  sufficient  jiercentage  to  take  care  of 
the  reserve  fund,  taxes,  etc.  Any  surplus  left 
over  from  taxes,  maintenance,  etc.,  should  go 
into  the  reserve  fund  at  the  end  of  the  year. 
Local  conditions  will  influence  the  total  returns 
reejuired,  but  ordinarily  they  will  range  from 
9 per  cent  to  14  per  cent  of  the  total  jiaid  in 
stock,  annually. 

Once  the  foregoing  figures  are  determined,  it 
will  be  comparatively  simple  to  figure  out  the 
basis  on  which  properties  can  be  sold.  In  most 
cases,  the  plan  outlined  in  Method  i will  prove 
satisfactory  — that  is,  a certain  percentage  as  a 
cash  payment  at  the  time  of  purchase,  and  a 
sufficient  monthly  percentage  payment  to  take 
care  of  the  dividends,  maintenance  and  reserv^e 
funds.  Payments  on  the  principal  are  taken 
care  of  by  obligating  the  purchaser  to  take 
out  shares  in  a co-operativ^e  bank.  If  the 
]irospective  purchaser  is  unable  to  make  the 
required  initial  payment  at  the  time  of  pur- 
chase, he  is  permitted  to  purchase  shares  in 
the  Association  from  time  to  time,  these  shares 
being  of  small  denomination,  and  as  soon  as 
their  valuation  ecjuals  the  initial  payment  on 
the  jiroperty  desired,  they  are  turned  over  to 
the  Association  in  lieu  of  money.  Thus  he  is 
encouraged  to  save,  is  giv’en  an  interest  in  the 
jiroject,  and  gets  a better  return  than  the 
banks  would  pav'  on  his  savings  while  he  is 
waiting  until  he  has  accumulated  a large  enough 
amount  to  take  care  of  the  purchase  payment 
on  the  property  he  desires. 

Opportunity  for  the  Workers 

Under  such  a plan,  the  worker  purchasing  a 
home,  can  continue  to  invest  his  surplus  savings 
in  the  project  and  get  a better  return  from  it 
than  he  could  elsevvffiere.  Since,  in  the  case  of 
skilled  and  well-paid  workmen,  the  payments 
on  his  property  would  not  ordinarily  utilize  all 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


37 


he  could  spare  from  his  pay  envelope  his 
familiarity  with  the  project  would  make  such 
an  investment  more  attractive  than  placing 
money  in  a bank  at  3 per  cent  or  4 per  cent 
interest. 

xAppeal  to  the  municipal  government  and 
other  investors  could  also  be  made  on  the 
grounds  that  the  successful  completion  of  such 
a housing  enterprise  would  enhance  property 
values,  increase  the  amount  of  taxable  prop- 
erty — thereby  increasing  the  city  revenue, 
develop  the  industrial  interests  of  the  com- 
munity, attract  and  provide  work  for  more 
citizens  in  the  community  — thus  increasing 
the  volume  of  business  done  by  merchants  and 
others,  and  transform  into  substantial  citizens 
many  workers  whose  stay  would  otherwise  be 
brief.  It  would  hold  an  appeal  to  the  moneyed 
class  because  it  is  a comparatively  safe  invest- 
ment, its  assets  are  tangible  ones  and  largely 
indestructible,  and  the  returns  on  money  in- 
vested are  assured  and  as  large  as  could  rea- 
sonably be  expected  when  the  element  of  risk 
is  practically  eliminated. 

The  foregoing  plan  is  not  perfect,  of  course, 
yet  it  provides  a means  of  obtaining  the  neces- 
sary capital  to  finance  housing  operations  and 
to  do  so  without  the  delay  which  would  attend 
an  endeavor  to  enlist  municipal,  state  or 
Federal  aid.  Ultimately,  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment may  have  to  take  a hand  in  the  housing 
operations  of  congested  communities,  where  the 
housing  accommodations  are  inadequate.  Pri- 
vate capital,  or  even  capital  raised  by  public 
subscription,  is  not  always  obtainable  quickly 
enough  to  alleviate  conditions  and  many  com- 


munities are  already  suffering  from  this  cause. 

In  Bridgeport,  for  instance,  $1,000,000  was 
provided  by  local  capital  to  house  the  workers 
of  the  city,  yet  that  has  been  far  from  sufficient 
and  the  influx  of  new  workers  has  been  much 
more  rapid  than  the  building  operations  which 
have  gone  on  to  accommodate  them. 

Following  in  England’s  Footsteps 

Eventually  we  will  have  to  take  the  steps 
that  England  has  already  taken  and  establish 
some  form  of  Government  control  and  assis- 
tance to  cope  with  our  housing  problems.  This 
might  take  the  form  of  a Housing  Commission 
vested  with  the  authority  to  survey  housing 
needs  in  various  communities  and  determine 
the  relative  importance  of  industrial  enter- 
prises. Such  a commission  should  also  be  em- 
powered to  seize  or  purchase  land,  buildings  or 
materials;  and  to  design  and  construct  com- 
munities and  industrial  settlements  where  most 
needed. 

In  order  to  do  this.  Congress  must  authorize 
the  appropriation  of  sufficient  money  to  finance 
such  work,  whether  construction  is  carried  on 
by  the  Government  or  loans  made  for  construc- 
tion by  private  enterprise.  By  thus  accelerating 
the  housing  operations  in  communities  where 
the  need  is  most  urgent,  the  Government  can 
be  of  invaluable  assistance  in  stabilizing  and 
rendering  more  productive  the  most  important, 
yet  most  uncertain  and  undependable  factor 
of  all  industry  — the  wage  earner. 

(The  above  article  is  reprinted  through  courtesy  of  the 
American  Architect,  New  York.  The  Architectural  and 
Building  Press,  Inc.) 


PLANNING  AND  FINANCING  THE 
INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING  PROJECT 


38 


HOMES 


FOR  WORKMEN 


HOUSING  BY  EMPLOYERS  IN 
THE  UNITED  STATES* 

LEIFUR  MAGNUSSON 

special  Agent,  United  States  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics 


COMPANY  housing  in  the  United  States 
dates  from  the  beginning  of  the  factory 
system.  The  colonial  manufacturer 
who  established  his  mill  where  water  power 
was  available  usually  found  an  undeveloped 
country,  and  by  force  of  necessity  had  to  pro- 
vide accommodations  for  the  labor  which  he 
brought  to  his  establishment. 

A good  many  early  housing  developments 
were  found  by  the  agents  of  the  United  States 
Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics  in  the  present  study 
of  industrial  housing.  One  project  connected 
with  a cotton  mill  in  Wilmington,  Delaware, 
dates  back  to  1831.  Houses  dating  from  1871 
and  1875  are  still  in  use  in  the  bituminous  coal 
fields  of  Pennsylvania;  and  in  the  anthracite 
region  from  the  period  1840-1850.  Company 
housing  developments  dating  as  far  back  were 
found  in  other  industries,  as  for  instance  a 
cotton  mill  in  South  Carolina  dating  from  1845, 
one  in  Georgia  from  1850  and  another  from 
1856. 

Before  undertaking  its  investigation  the 
Burea'u  secured  from  various  sources,  periodical 
literature,  letters  of  inquiry,  etc.,  a list  of  firms 
which  did  any  housing  of  their  employees.  The 
list  secured  contained  over  700  firms;  but  with- 
out cjuestion  the  list  was  incomplete.  A 
thousand  would  probably  be  a conservative 
estimate  of  the  number  of  industrial  employers 
in  the  United  States  who  do  housing  work. 
The  list  furthermore  did  not  include  railroad 
companies,  seasonal  labor  camps,  and  the 
agricultural  towns  of  the  Southwestern  United 

*Summary  of  a report  by  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Labor 
Statistics  on  Housing  by  Pimployers  in  the  United  States.  Sum- 
mary tables  presenting  facts  disclosed  by  this  study  will  be  found 
in  the  Monthly  Review  of  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics  for 
November,  1917. 


States.  How  many  workmen  are  employed  by 
these  thousand  or  more  companies  doing  hous- 
ing or  the  number  housed  by  them  has  not  been 
ascertained. 

Scope  of  the  Inquiry 

Altogether  213  separate  companies  were 
covered  in  the  study  undertaken  by  the  Bureau, 
including  subsidiary  companies  of  large  holding 
corporations  which  were  classed  as  separate 
companies.  The  companies  included  controlled 
423  establishments  or  plants  and  employed 
466,991  men  of  whom  160,645  or  34  P®r  cent 
were  accommodated  in  company  houses. 
Boarding  houses  were  not  included  in  this 
study.  The  data  gathered  were  generally  for 
the  year  1916. 

As  may  be  readily  understood  the  investiga- 
tion was  not  comprehensive,  but  merely  repre- 
sentative, though  it  covered  a considerable 
extent  of  territory.  It  included  the  bituminous 
coal  regions  of  Pennsylvania,  West  Virginia, 
Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Alabama,  Tennessee, 
Kentucky,  Colorado  and  Wyoming;  the  anthra- 
cite coal  region  of  Pennsylvania ; the  iron  mining 
districts  of  the  North,  including  Michigan, 
Wisconsin  and  Minnesota;  and  of  the  South; 
copper  mining  in  JVIichigan  and  Tennessee;  and 
the  copper  and  gold  region  of  Arizona,  New 
Mexico  and  Colorado;  the  two  princii^al  dis- 
tricts in  the  North  and  the  South  of  iron  and 
steel  and  allied  industries;  explosive  manufac- 
turing, the  two  textile  districts  of  the  North 
and  South;  and  a group  of  certain  miscellaneous 
industries  representing  such  industries  as  salt 
manufacturing,  zinc  smelting,  manufacturing 
of  grinding  wheels,  cordage  and  rubber  manu- 


39 


40 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


facturing,  cotton  mill  machinery,  silk  and 
artificial  silk,  arms  and  ammunition,  and  lum- 
ber manufacturing. 

Town  Planning 

'khe  sui'N'ey  revealed  that  town  planning  has 
not  been  given  any  great  consideration  in  the 
large  majority  of  cases;  technical  town  planners 
had  been  consulted  by  15  per  cent  of  the  em- 
])loying  companies  studied.  The  idea  of  con- 
sulting town  planning  exj)erts,  furthermore,  is 
of  recent  origin;  and  the  emi)loyment  of  such 
e.\])erts  seems  relatively  more  frequent  on  the 
part  of  manufacturing  employers  than  of  mine 
operators.  Model  towns  with  few  exceptions  are 
of  recent  origin. 

Employers  are  little  hampered  by  existing 
buildings  and  city  devekqmient  in  the  planning 
of  their  housing  projects;  for,  of  the  2,^6  develo]'»- 
ments  for  which  separate  information  was  se- 
cured, 157  or  two-thirds  are  reported  as  located 
on  undeveloped  land  reciuiring  the  laying  out 
of  new  towns.  But  town  jilanning  and  land- 
scaj)ing  are  likewise  possible  in  city  suburbs  and 
subdivisions,  though  ]XThaps  with  more  limita- 
tions on  their  sco])e.  Of  23b  housing  develo]^- 
ments  ib  or  b.8  per  cent  are  in  suburbs,  31  or 
1 3. 1 per  cent  in  city  subdivisions,  ib  or  b.8  }:>er 
cent  are  on  lots  already  laid  out  within  city 
blocks,  and  10  or  4.2  ])er  cent  are  on  a combina- 
tion of  the  different  tyj^es  of  develo])ment. 
Six  or  2.b  ])er  cent  do  not  rei)ort  on  this  point. 

A failure  to  give  thought  to  town  ]4anning 
and  a general  use  of  the  rectangular  system 
without  regard  to  site  contours  has  resulted  in 
absurd  grades  in  some  towns.  Grades  of  14  per 
cent  are  found,  and  in  one  case  when  road  con- 
struction was  in  progress,  the  company  had  to 
install  an  engine  to  assist  in  hauling  wagons  up 
the  steep  grades. 

Street  Widths 

Streets  in  company  towns  are  almost  without 
exception  ample  in  width,  frequently  if  aii}’- 
thing  too  wide,  making  the  cost  of  original  con- 
struction and  upkeep  unnecessarily  high,  be- 
sides frequently  resulting  in  untidiness.  The 
prevailing  width  for  streets  is  45  feet,  and  for 


alleys  15  feet.  In  mining  towns,  however,  wide 
streets  may  be  justified  as  a precaution  against 
fire;  but  even  then  the  evils  of  too  wide  streets 
can  be  obviated  by  paving  or  grading  only  a 
narrow  central  portion  of  the  street,  or  by  }>ro- 
viding  a good  setback  from  the  street  line  for 
the  houses,  and  then  if  necessary  later  on 
widening  the  graded  or  paved  portion  of  the 
street  by  decreasing  this  setback. 

The  technical  districting  of  land  areas,  re- 
stricting the  land  for  special  uses,  is  not  gener- 
ally ])racticed  by  employers  in  laying  out 
com])any  towns.  There  is  always  a natural 
tendency,  however,  to  place  stores  at  the  center 
of  the  community  and  to  group  houses  around 
that  center. 

Restrictions 

Aside  from  restrictions  against  the  keeping 
of  saloons  or  the  following  of  noxious  trades 
contained  in  all  leases  and  deeds  of  sales,  such 
other  limitations  as  are  attempted  relate  to  the 
keeping  of  domestic  animals,  type  of  fences  and 
outbuildings,  t>q^e  and  cost  of  house,  etc. 

Some  emplo}'ers  have  decided  against  all 
restrictions  on  the  ground  of  the  danger  of 
establishing  paternalism,  a danger  made  evident 
by  the  fate  of  Pullman,  Illinois.  In  one  town  in 
cpiestion,  the  agent  of  the  Bureau  noted  the 
following  results: 

‘‘Many  tenants  keep  chickens  and  some  keep  cows 
and  horses.  In  consequence  the  backyards  are  untidy. 
Some  of  the  lots  have  two  houses,  one  in  front  and  one 
on  the  rear  of  the  lot.  In  some  cases  the  person  buying 
a lot  put  up  a cheap  house  on  the  rear  of  the  lot  and 
lived  in  it  for  the  first  few  years  and  then  the  tenant 
would  put  up  a better  house  on  the  front  of  the  lot  and 
rent  the  rear  house.  In  a few  cases  the  barn  has  been 
converted  into  a rear  house.  Business  buildings,  stables, 
stores,  etc.,  have  been  built  in  the  residence  district.” 

In  the  matter  of  race  restrictions,  one  em- 
ployer alternated  the  negro  and  immigrant 
families  in  his  houses  declaring  his  purpose  to 
be  to  avoid  too  great  clannishness  and  quarrel- 
ling of  neighbors  in  the  South.  Negroes  are  al- 
ways of  course  segregated,  as  are  Mexicans  in 
the  southwestern  company  towns. 

Community  Services 

Public  utilities  are  provided  and  certain 
governmental  functions  are  exercised  b}'  the 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


41 


employing  companies  themselves  in  the  large 
majority  of  cases  in  the  236  communities 
studied.  When  the  agency  providing  the 
utility  is  a private  company,  such  company  is 
frequently  a subsidiary  of  the  employing  com- 
pany, or  controlled  by  the  same  individuals 
who  control  the  employing  company.  No 
water  system  other  then  wells  or  outside  hy- 
drants are  provided  in  14  or  6 per  cent  of  the 
229  communities  reporting;  no  sanitary  sewers 
in  91  or  40  per  cent;  no  storm  sewers  in  116  or 
50  per  cent;  no  electric  lights  in  39  or  17  per 
cent;  no  gas  in  173  or  76  per  cent;  no  street 
paving  in  103  or  45  per  cent;  and  no  sidewalks 
or  gutters  in  43  or  19  per  cent  of  the  com- 
munities studied. 

In  over  one-half  of  the  communities  report- 
ing, street  cleaning  and  lighting,  hre  protec- 
tion, sanitary  collection  and  sanitary  regula- 
tions and  restrictions  upon  the  use  of  the  land 
for  stores,  sale  of  liquors  and  type  of  residences, 
etc.,  are  functions  of  the  employing  company 
and  not  of  the  community.  In  85  or  a little 
over  one-third  of  all  cases,  the  company  also 
provided  the  police  protection  of  the  com- 
munity. Generally  speaking  employers  merely 
assist  in  the  provision  of  schools  and  churches. 
No  hospitals  or  playgrounds  are  found  in  over 
one-third  of  the  communities  studied. 

The  chief  characteristic  noticeable  in  every 
company  town  is  its  uniformity,  due  to  the 
tendency  to  erect  a certain  uniform  style  of 
house  and  to  lay  the  town  out  along  rectangular 
lines  of  survey.  The  company  town  suffers 
from  a wrong  kind  of  deliberate  planning  — 
wherein  it  does  not  differ  greatly  from  the  non- 
company town  — largely  because  the  housing 
work  is  incidental  to  the  principal  business  of 
the  employer  and  does  not  receive  considera- 
tion in  proportion  to  that  given  the  purely 
business  part  of  the  employers’  enteq^rise. 

Another  characteristic  of  the  company  town 
which  it  shares  with  most  other  communities 
has  been  its  disregard  of  the  advantages  of 
vegetation,  planting  of  trees,  grass  and  shrub- 
bery. Bare  court  yards  and  surroundings  are 
not  only  unsightly,  but  as  one  large  coal  oper- 
ator in  Pennsylvania  pointed  out,  they  are  a 


menace  to  health  as  the  dust  and  dirt  which 
generally  collect  are  prolihc  carriers  of  disease. 

As  land  is  plentiful  in  practically  all  com- 
})any  housing  developments,  with  the  exception 
of  a few  in  the  eastern  states  located  within 
the  limits  of  large  cities,  there  is  found  no 
tendency  toward  crowding  on  lots.  The  nar- 
rowest lots  found  (one-third  being  20  and  under 
25  feet  in  width)  are  for  houses  built  by  ex- 
plosive manufacturers,  unquestionably  due  to 
the  prevalence  of  row  houses.  Lots  for  company 
houses  built  by  copper  mining  companies  in 
Michigan  and  Tennessee,  coal  operators  in 
Ohio,  Indiana,  Pennsylvania,  West  Virginia, 
Colorado  and  Wyoming  are  generally  50  and 
under  60  feet  in  width.  In  the  mining  region  of 
the  North  few  lots  less  than  50  feet  wide  are 
found,  and  in  Alabama  few  less  than  40  feet. 
Narrower  lots  are  found  in  a group  of  certain 
miscellaneous  industries  where  one-third  of  the 
lots  are  under  40  feet. 

The  Company  House 

The  company  house  tends  to  a standard  both 
as  respects  its  plan  and  material  of  construc- 
tion. The  standardization  goes  even  to  the 
matter  of  the  color  of  its  exterior.  Certain 
types  of  houses  are  characteristic  of  different 
sections  of  the  country;  and  in  the  eastern 
states  there  is  a further  difference  in  the  type  of 
house  in  the  manufacturing  town  and  in  the 
mining  town,  a thing  which  is  not  true  in  the 
northern  and  southern  states,  where  there  is 
no  essential  difference  in  the  company  house 
in  the  manufacturing  town  and  in  the  mining 
town.  As  no  company  towns  in  the  far  western 
states  entered  into  this  study  no  statement 
can  be  made  as  respects  that  section  of  the 
country. 

A dwelling  for  the  purposes  of  this  survey  is 
defined  as  the  family  unit,  the  selling  or  renting 
unit,  as  the  case  may  be.  Thus  a double  house 
is  counted  as  two  dwellings. 

General  Features  of  Company 
Houses 

It  may  be  well  to  ])oint  out  some  of  the 
general  features  of  com])anv  houses  as  disclosed 


42 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


by  the  Bureau’s  investigation.  Of  the  53,176 
individual  dwellings,  25,582  or  48  jier  cent  are 
single  dwellings;  18,871  or  36  per  cent  double 
dwellings;  and  6,014  or  11  per  cent  row  dwell- 
ings, while  all  other  types  combined  number 
only  1,938  or  about  4 ]ier  cent  of  the  total. 
In  1 per  cent  of  all  cases  the  type  is  not  re- 
ported. 

Since  1881  there  has  been  a significant  devel- 
opment in  the  type  of  buildings  erected  by 
employers  for  their  workmen,  ddie  prevailing 
type  of  house  erected  before  1881  was  the  row 
dwelling;  870  or  48  per  cent  of  the  1,800  dwell- 
ings erected  before  that  date  were  of  that  type; 
the  double  dwelling  was  the  next  most  com- 
mon, 423  or  24  ]ier  cent  being  of  that  type. 
'Fhe  proportion  of  the  row  type  of  dwellings 
erected  declined  somewhat  irregularly  from  that 
time  to  the  ])resent,  so  that  at  the  time  of  the 
survey  this  type  formed  15  jier  cent  of  all 
company  dwellings,  ft  is  that  of  3,547  houses 
erected  by  employers  in  1916,  1,529  or  43 
]ier  cent  are  of  the  row  ty]ie,  and  of  1,177 
erected  in  1917,  375  or  32  ]ier  cent  are 
of  the  row  ty]ie.  The  prevalence  of  the  row 
ty]ie  of  house  before  1881  is  undoubtedly  due 
to  the  fact  that  in  the  early  days  mine 
operators  erected  thousands  of  one-story 
frame  rows.  Fhe  increase  in  row  houses  in 
1916  and  1917  is  explained  by  the  fact  that 
the  new  company  developments  which  were 
reported  as  of  those  years  happened  to  be  laid 
out  in  large  cities  where  land  is  high. 

The  frame  structure  is  the  most  jirevalent 
style  of  company  house,  with  brick  less  than  a 
tenth  as  ])revalent,  and  all  other  types  of  mate- 
rial combined  even  less  prevalent  than  brick. 

The  largest  jiroportion  of  the  company 
houses,  15,672  dwellings  or  30  per  cent  of  a 
total  of  53,176  ha\'e  4 rooms;  a little  over  one- 
sixth,  9,413,  5 rooms,  and  an  equal  proportion, 
9,127,  6 rooms;  that  is,  a little  over  two-thirds 
of  all  company  houses  are  4,  5,  and  6-room 
dwellings.  There  are  160  i-room  dwellings,  but 
this  is  less  than  i per  cent  of  the  total. 

The  4,  5,  and  6-room  dwellings  are  therefore 
the  typical  size  company  houses.  Of  17,643 
four-room  dwellings,  30  per  cent  rent  for  less 


than  $5  a month;  40  per  cent  for  less  than  $6; 
58  iier  cent  for  less  than  $7 ; and  76  per  cent  for 
less  than  $8.  Of  the  5-room  company  houses, 
63  per  cent,  and  of  the  6-room  houses  43  per 
cent  rent  for  less  than  $8  per  month.  Consider- 
ing all  company  dwellings,  69  per  cent  rent 
for  less  than  $8  a month.  It  is  then  quite  con- 
servative to  say  that  over  two-thirds  of  all 
company  houses  are  well  within  the  means  of 
the  low  ])aid  unskilled  laborer.  For  while  no 
study  has  been  made  of  the  actual  relation 
between  wages  and  rent,  two  employers  report 
that  they  limit  rent  to  a definite  percentage  of 
wages;  namely,  25  per  cent  in  one  case  and  10 
]')er  cent  in  the  other.  Assuming  either  of  these 
ratios  to  be  the  correct  one,  the  estimate  that 
two-thirds  of  all  company  houses  are  within 
the  means  of  the  low^  paid  worker  is  not  exag- 
gerated. It  ])resu])poses  on  the  basis  of  the 
high  ratio  of  25  per  cent  earnings  of  about  $32 
a month. 

In  view  of  the  rentals  charged  it  is  not  to 
be  expected  that  a large  proportion  of  all  com- 
pany houses  should  have  such  modern  con- 
\'eniences  as  bath,  water-closet,  sewer  connec- 
tions, and  w'ater  or  lighting  systems.  However, 
considering  all  company  houses  for  which  the 
facts  are  re]:>orted  (47,580),  8,238  or  17.3  per 
cent  are  equi])ped  with  bath,  water-closet,  sewer 
or  cesspool,  water  system  and  gas  or  electric 
light,  some  of  which  also  have  laundry  tubs 
and  hot  water  connections;  859  or  1.8  per  cent 
have  bath,  water-closet,  sewer  or  cesspool  or  a 
water  system;  1,917  or  4.0  per  cent  have  water- 
closet,  sewer  or  cesspool,  running  water  inside, 
and  gas  or  electric  light;  2,534  or  5.3  per  cent 
have  water-closet,  sewer  or  cesspool  and  run- 
ning water  inside;  180  or  0.4  per  cent  have 
bath,  running  water  and  gas  or  electric  light. 
Gas  or  electric  light  and  running  water  in- 
side are  found  in  2.010  or  4.2  per  cent  of 
all  dwellings.  There  are  no  modern  conveni- 
ences except  running  water  inside  in  2,593  or 
5.4  per  cent  of  all  company  dwellings,  and 
no  modern  conveniences  except  gas  or  electric 
light  in  10,600  or  22.3  per  cent  of  all  dwellings. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  largest  proportion  of 
all  company  dwellings,  18,649  or  39.2  per  cent 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


43 


have  no  modern  inside  sanitary  conveniences. 
The  facts  as  to  sanitary  equipment  are  not 
reported  for  5,596  or  10.5  per  cent  of  all  build- 
ings included  in  the  survey. 

Materials  Used 

While  nine-tenths  of  all  company  houses  are 
of  frame  construction  several  employers  are 
experimenting  with  construction  materials  of 
concrete  and  hollow  tile  in  various  combina- 
tions. A large  anthracite  coal  operator  in 
Pennsylvania  built  a group  of  20  double  houses 
(40  dwellings)  of  poured  concrete  without  air 
spaces  in  the  walls;  but  he  has  not  found  them 
as  successful  as  he  had  anticipated.  They  cost 
more  than  the  same  style  and  size  of  brick 
house,  while  some  of  the  tenants  report  them  as 
damp,  and  to  an  observer  they  appear  rather 
cold  and  forbidding  on  the  inside.  The  plaster 
has  peeled  off  in  spots,  and  where  pieces  have 
broken  off  the  stair  coping,  which  is  also  of 
poured  concrete,  it  would  seem  difficult  or  im- 
possible to  make  repairs.  Hollow  tile  with 
stucco  exterior  is  being  used  successfully  in  a 
mining  town  in  Arizona,  and  variety  is  being 
obtained  by  tinting  the  stucco  various  colors. 
A company  in  Pennsylvania  in  its  housing 
development  has  experimented  with  the  hollow 
wall  form  of  concrete  construction,  but  the 
development  is  too  recent  to  justify  an  opinion 
as  to  its  success.  Two  large  manufacturers 
have  built  some  3,000  odd  houses  of  the  ready- 
built  type.  While  this  type  makes  for  rapid 
construction  difficulty  was  experienced  in  match- 
ing parts;  which  may  have  been  due  however, 
to  confusion  growing  out  of  a hurry  arising 
from  the  urgent  necessity  to  provide  accom- 
modations at  once. 

Cost  of  the  Typical  House 

The  cost  of  a few  typical  company  houses  in 
different  sections  of  the  country  is  of  interest. 
Costs  as  here  given  include  only  the  cost  of 
the  house,  not  the  out-buildings  or  land  and 
street  improvements.  The  costs  today  would 
be  much  greater  than  those  given  here  owing 
to  increased  wages  and  cost  of  materials;  and 


the  increases  would  vary  with  the  type  of 
materials  used  and  the  locality. 

The  double  mine  type  of  house  in  Pennsyl- 
vania and  West  Virginia  ranges  from  $600  to 
$800  per  dwelling  or  the  renting  unit  of  4 to  5 
rooms;  a similar  type  of  house  of  5 rooms  per 
family  erected  in  Michigan,  in  1907,  cost  $825; 
the  double  frame  cottage  in  the  New  England 
states  cost,  in  1914,  from  $800  to  $1,000  per 
dwelling. 

The  four-room  miner’s  frame  house  in  Ohio 
cost  $600  to  $800;  similar  houses  in  Colorado 
cost,  in  1914,  $750.  A group  of  40  was  built  in 
1914  in  Colorado  for  $700  each.  A cement 
block  house  of  4 rooms  in  Colorado  cost  $650 
in  1900.  The  simple  four-room  house  on  open 
piers  built  in  the  South  cost  $670  in  1917;  a 
group  of  35  four-room  two-story  frame  houses 
built  in  northern  Minnesota  cost,  in  1910,  $750 
each. 

A four-room,  one  story  one-family  house  of 
the  ready-built  type  cost  $1,500,  in  1913,  in 
Virginia;  a five-room  ready-built  house  of  a 
similar  type  erected  in  New  Jersey  cost,  in  1915, 
approximately  $1,200.  A four-room  ready- 
built  house  erected  in  1914  in  Pennsylvania  by  a 
certain  railway  equipment  company  cost  $1,500. 
A four-room  one-family  frame  bungalow,  neither 
ceiled  nor  plastered  inside,  but  having  inside 
sanitary  conveniences,  erected  by  companies 
in  Arizona,  cost  $1,000.  These  costs  of  typical 
four-room  company  houses  are  cited  merely  by 
way  of  example,  but  even  these  few  examples 
show  how  widely  costs  vary  and  how  dependent 
they  are  upon  local  conditions  and  changes  in 
the  material  market. 

Maintenance  of  Houses  and 
Surroundings 

Good  company  developments  are  found  to  be 
greatly  marred  by  a failure  to  maintain  the 
houses  and  their  surroundings  properly.  Rel- 
atively poor  housing  accommodations  are  re- 
deemed to  an  extent  by  a good  system  of  up- 
keep. Employers  are  practically  one  in  their 
belief  that  problems  of  maintenance  are  the 
most  important  ones  for  the  success  of  any 
housing  undertaking.  The  old  style  type  of 


44 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


miners  house  in  the  anthracite  and  bituminous 
regions  of  Pennsylvania  is  being  rejuvenated,  as 
it  were,  by  repainting  and  repair,  construction 
of  whitewashed  fences,  and  the  planting  of 
trees  and  shrubbery,  and  the  encouragement 
of  gardening.  Streets  and  alleys  and  back- 
yards are  kept  clean  by  a system  of  garbage 
and  sanitary  collection. 

A steel  car  company  in  Pennsylvania  has 
supplied  all  its  200  single  houses  for  the  better 
paid  class  of  workmen  with  a garbage  can  at 
a total  cost  of  $175.  At  the  rear  of  the  alternate 
rows  of  houses  for  the  immigrant  labor  it  has 
placed  a garbage  and  rubbish  box  and  all 
waste  rubbish  is  to  be  dum]:)ed  in  there.  When 
the  boxes  are  cleaned  each  week  lime  is  put 
in  them  as  a disinfectant.  This  is  but  a ty])ical 
case,  d'he  system  of  garbage  cans  and  rubbish 
boxes  furnished  by  the  em])loyers  is  found  in- 
dispensable in  the  mining  towns  of  the  Minne- 
sota iron  ranges,  in  the  company  towns  of 
Alabama,  in  Arizona  and  elsewhere. 

It  is  the  policy  of  about  a third  of  the  com- 
panies included  in  the  survey  to  encourage 
gardening  by  means  of  ])rizes,  and  it  is  found 
that  once  gardening  has  been  started  in  this 
manner  it  tends  to  maintain  itself.  Another 
method  of  encouraging  gardening  is  by  the 
distribution  of  handbooks  on  the  subject.  A 
few  employers  report  the  gi\'ing  of  prizes  a 
failure,  and  suggest  instead  the  giving  of  a flat 
bonus  to  each  tenant  who  keeps  a garden  of  a 
specified  standard. 

As  a preliminary  to  the  inauguration  of  suc- 
cessful gardening  it  is  usually  necessar}’  to 
erect  fences;  for  almost  inevitably  it  is  found 
that  a tenant  who  starts  to  garden  will  build 
a fence  about  his  premises.  \Miere  the  ten- 
ant is  left  to  make  his  own  fence  a nondescript 
makeshift  is  the  usual  result,  a fence  made 
of  the  odds  and  ends  of  loose  boards,  pieces  of 
corrugated  iron  and  waste  wire  as  a rule. 
Uniform  company  fences  on  the  other  hand 
add  much  to  the  appearance  of  a town. 

Some  companies,  however,  are  able  to  enforce 
a rule  of  no  fences;  and  when  that  is  the  case 
all  yards  are  kept  well  turfed  and  mowed,  and 
provision  made  for  supplying  trash  and  garbage 


receptacles  which  are  regularly  removed  and 
emptied. 

The  repair  and  upkeep  of  company  houses 
is  generally  committed  to  the  repair  depart- 
ment of  the  establishment,  with  the  result  that 
house  repairs  are  given  secondary  consideration 
to  general  plant  repair.  Several  companies,  on 
the  other  hand,  have  found  it  better  to  keep  a 
se])arate  repair  department  in  connection  with 
their  real  estate  or  housing  department;  the 
houses  are  then  given  the  proper  attention, 
regular  men  being  charged  with  the  duty  of 
repair  and  maintenance. 

The  Housing  Investment 

With  few  exceptions  the  housing  work  is 
conducted  as  a general  part  of  the  employer’s 
princii)al  business;  the  accounting  and  adminis- 
trative work  connected  with  it  is  done  in  the 
general  office  of  the  employer  and  by  a staff 
which  has  other  duties  to  perform.  In  some 
instances  a special  department  usually  termed 
the  land  de|)artment  or  land  agent  is  created 
for  the  conduct  of  the  work.  Where  the  housing 
is  conducted  by  a subsidiarc'  company  the 
housing  enter]:)rise  usually  becomes  more  elabor- 
ate and  is  found  more  generally  in  connection 
with  a model  village  development. 

Although  the  largest  proportion  of  company 
housing  is  still  done  directly  by  the  employer 
as  a general  part  of  his  business,  there  is  dis- 
cernible a slight  tendency  toward  the  indirect 
method  of  the  subsidiar}"  company  or  the  real 
estate  company  controlled  by  stock  ownership 
of  the  em]>loyer. 

Practically  all  employers  rent  their  houses  to 
their  workmen.  The  practice  of  selling  is  find- 
ing its  limited  vogue  among  the  more  highly 
specialized  and  permanent  industries.  Out  of 
213  different  employers  canvassed  in  the  in- 
quiry, oifiy  33  reported  the  practice  of  con- 
structing and  selling  houses  to  their  employees. 
Mine  operators  generally  do  not  encourage  their 
employees  to  buy  houses  because  the  industry 
is  not  permanent,  as  mines  gradually  become 
worked  out  after  a period  of  years. 

Of  the  employing  firms  scheduled,  only  one 
encouraged  the  employees  to  take  out  a life 


45 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


insurance  policy  to  guarantee  the  payment  of 
his  loan  of  the  purchase  price  in  the  event  of 
death  prior  to  final  payment.  The  plan  is 
optional,  yet  about  51  per  cent  of  the  pur- 
chasers have  taken  advantage  of  it. 

Three  companies  have  been  found  which  are 
trying  to  prevent  speculation  in  the  houses 
which  they  sell  to  their  employees.  One  large 
manufacturer  in  Ohio  aims  to  have  the  specula- 
tive increase  accrue  to  the  employee.  This  is 
done  by  basing  the  montlily  installments  of  the 
purchase  price  for  the  first  five  years  on  the 
initial  real  estate  value  of  the  property.  This 
value  is  placed  at  25  per  cent  above  the  actual 
cost  price  to  the  company;  and  if  at  the  end 
of  the  five  years  the  employee  is  still  with  the 
company  there  is  returned  to  him  the  difference 
between  the  real  estate  value  and  the  cost 
value  of  the  house.  All  payments  after  that 
date  are  made  on  the  basis  of  the  actual  cost 
price  of  the  property. 

Another  method  of  preventing  speculation  is 
to  require  the  erection  within  a limited  time, 
usually  less  than  a year,  of  a house  upon  the 
lot  sold  to  an  employee.  This  method  is  in 
fact,  however,  only  a temporary  limitation 
against  speculation. 

Cost  of  Company  Housing 

To  the  employer  who  expects  to  undertake 
housing  work  the  first  consideration  is  usually 
the  cost.  On  this  point  the  survey  is  able  to 
throw  some  light,  sixty  different  companies 
having  reported  the  total  original  cost  of  all 
company  houses,  not  including  land,  as  $15,- 
948,502.  This  amount  is  28  per  cent  of  the 
average  annual  pay-roll  of  these  companies  for 
a five-year  period  (1911-1915).  The  houses 
accommodated  42  per  cent  of  their  employees, 
a factor  which  must  be  taken  into  consideration 
in  comparing  the  cost  of  the  houses  with  the 
pay-roll.  The  proportion  which  the  cost  of  the 
houses  forms  of  the  pay-roll  (28  per  cent),  is 
to  the  proportion  of  employees  housed  (42  per 
cent),  about  as  2 is  to  3.  For  example,  if  an 
employer  proposes  to  house  one-half  of  his 
employees,  he  may  expect  to  invest  in  houses, 
not  including  land,  an  amount  equal  to  one- 


third  of  his  annual  pay-roll;  if  he  proposes  to 
house  all,  he  will  need  to  invest  an  amount 
equal  to  two-thirds  of  his  annual  pay-roll. 
Separate  industries  show  considerable  varia- 
tion because  in  some  localities  climatic  condi- 
tions require  a more  substantial  construction,  or 
because  better  houses  than  the  average  are 
sometimes  built.  Thus  for  one  company  in  a 
group  of  miscellaneous  industries,  where  a 
better  class  of  house  has  been  built  having 
modern  conveniences  and  considerable  archi- 
tectural variety,  the  total  original  cost  of  the 
company  houses  is  52  per  cent  of  the  annual 
pay-roll  for  a five-year  period,  while  only  28 
per  cent  of  its  1,800  employees  are  housed. 
This  proportion  is  almost  the  reverse  of  the 
average  shown  above  for  the  60  companies 
investigated,  taken  together.  These  figures 
should,  of  course,  only  be  taken  as  a rough 
approximation  of  relative  costs. 

On  his  housing  investment  the  employer  gets 
a gross  return  of  8.3  per  cent,  a ratio  based  on 
the  original  cost  of  all  houses  as  reported  by  60 
different  companies.  The  total  original  cost 
of  the  houses  was  $15,126,125.  Reports  from 
8 different  coal  companies  in  Pennsylvania 
show  a gross  return  of  ii  per  ce.nt  on  a total 
inventory  value  of  $2,855,912.  In  calculating 
these  percentages,  average  annual  rent  receipts 
for  a five-year  period  (1911-1915)  have  been 
used.  The  gross  returns  received  by  companies 
in  different  sections  of  the  country  and  for  differ- 
ent industries  varied  considerably,  e.  g.,  from 
a maximum  of  20  per  cent  on  company  houses 
of  certain  mining  companies  in  Alabama,  to 
6.2  per  cent  on  the  houses  belonging  to  5 steel 
companies  in  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio. 

The  cost  of  housing  to  the  employer  is  ap- 
proximately $383  per  employee  housed,  if  calcu- 
lated on  the  base  of  the  original  cost  of  the 
houses  alone,  not  including  land  or  improve- 
ments. Those  companies,  however,  which  re- 
ported an  inventory  or  estimated  present  value 
of  their  houses  show  a smaller  cost — $361 — per 
employee  housed.  Both  these  figures  are  ex- 
tremely low,  even  when  consideration  is  taken 
of  the  fact  that  employers  do  housing  on  a large 
scale.  This  low  cost  reflects  in  a measure  the 


46 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


relati\Tly  low  grade  of  housing  furnished  in  all 
but  a comi)aratively  few  cases. 

Why  Employers  House  their 
Employees 

Employers  undertake  to  house  their  work- 
men ])rimarily  because  there  is  a dearth  of 
houses.  Only  in  two  industrial  villages  were 
there  found  vacant  houses  at  the  time  of  this 
sur\-ey,  and  that  was  because  the  houses  were 
obviously  bad.  Aside  from  the  immediate  ne- 
cessity for  more  houses,  other  reasons  moved 
employers  to  maintain  at  least  a nucleus  of 
com])any  houses.  There  was  first  the  need  of 
certain  emergency  men  near  the  ])lant  for  the 
sake  of  added  safety  (as  in  mine  operations  in 
case  of  fire  or  accident);  the  desire  for  a stable 
supply  of  labor,  married  men  particularly;  and 
the  belief  that  a more  efficient  labor  force 
would  thereby  be  secured. 

Some  of  the  reasons  given  are  as  follows:  It 
])ays  as  a business  pro]:)osition ; stockholders 
interested  in  real  estate  company  which  built 
the  houses;  property  bought  for  plant  exten- 
sion (which  shows  the  housing  enterprise  was 
merely  an  incidental  feature) ; feeling  that 
emploN’er  owes  employee  something;  as  an 
experiment;  to  prove  out  factory  village  plan 
as  a new  theory;  to  promote  general  welfare  of 
mankind,  and  to  obtain  a supply  of  foreign 
labor. 

It  is  extremely  difficult  to  say  whether  em- 
ployers secure  all  the  ends  in  question.  Cer- 
tainh'  they  do  not  supply  nearly  enough  houses 
for  all  their  labor  force,  as  only  one-third  of 
their  employees  are  accommodated  in  company 
houses.  The  cotton  mills  of  the  South  house 
relatively  the  largest  proportion  of  their  labor 
supply,  namely  71  per  cent,  followed  by  soft 
coal  mine  operators  in  all  sections  of  the  coun- 
try, who  house  62  per  cent.  The  lowest  per- 
centage housed,  or  15.9  per  cent,  is  in  the  copper 
and  gold  mining  regions  of  the  Southwest. 
This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  unskilled  INIexi- 
can  laborer  is  not  generally  housed  by  the 
companies  in  this  region. 

WTile  165  out  of  213  companies  state  that 
their  practice  is  to  supply  houses  to  all  classes 


of  their  eni])loyees,  preference  is  naturally 
given  to  men  most  difhcult  to  retain,  that  is, 
the  higher  j>aid  skilled  workmen.  No  dehnite 
data  are  available  to  show  what  proportion  of 
each  particular  class  of  labor  is  housed  in  com- 
])any  houses. 

Practically  all  comi)anies  state  that  they  are 
satished  with  the  results  of  their  housing  work; 
only  a few  report  an  unfavorable  experience, 
a common  complaint  being  that  the  housing 
business  is  unprohtable.  There  were  received 
altogether  some  350  replies  to  the  inquiry  ask- 
ing for  the  results  to  employers  of  their  housing 
work.  Arranged  according  to  the  frequency 
with  which  they  have  been  noted,  the  results 
of  comimny  housing  are  declared  to  be  as 
follows: 

1.  It  secures  a better  class  of  workmen; 

2.  It  gives  greater  stability  in  the  supply  of 
labor; 

3.  It  results  in  reduction  in  the  number  of 
floaters; 

4.  It  means  better  living  conditions; 

5.  It  secures  greater  loyalty  from  employees; 

6.  It  makes  more  contented  and  more  effi- 
cient workmen; 

7.  It  aff'ords  better  control  of  the  labor 
situation,  that  is,  hire  and  discharge  with 
greater  freedom; 

8.  It  attracts  married  men; 

9.  It  gives  greater  regularity  of  employ- 
ment ; 

10.  It  provides  a better  house  for  less  money 
for  the  workmen; 

11.  It  brings  profit  to  the  company; 

12.  It  facilitates  part  time; 

13.  It  serves  to  advertise  the  company  and 
keep  it  favorably  before  the  public. 

Pff-om  this  statement  of  results  it  is  quite  plain 
that  housing  is  probably  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant factors  in  maintaining  a steady  supply 
of  labor,  that  is,  it  is  a factor  in  greatly  reducing 
labor  turnover,  a problem  which  is  now  re- 
ceiving a great  deal  of  attention  from  employers. 

One  of  the  largest  operators  in  the  coke  region 
of  Pennsylvania  and  another  in  the  steel  in- 
dustry emphasized  the  advantages  of  company 
houses  during  a period  of  depression.  During 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


47 


such  a contingency  the  employer  is  in  a posi- 
tion to  reduce  or  rebate  rent  to  his  men  and  thus 
keep  them  available  as  needed.  The  reduced 
rent  will  offset  the  reduced  earnings;  and  a 
workman  with  an  assured  shelter  over  his 
head  will  be  particularly  loath  to  leave  during 
dull  times  in  the  industry.  Furthermore,  the 
keeping  of  a nucleus  of  men  at  hand,  it  was 
noted,  facilitates  a cjuick  start  upon  resump- 
tion of  activity. 

Other  Advantages 

The  same  operator  in  the  coke  region  who 
remarked  the  benehts  of  company  housing  as 
facilitating  part  time  called  attention  to  one 
significant  result  of  improved  company  hous- 
ing. The  company  began  an  extended  clean-up 
campaign  about  1908.  Since  that  time  there 
has  been  an  increasing  demand  for  further  im- 
provements. Once  the  tenants  have  experi- 
enced added  comforts  resulting  from  clean 
streets  and  alleys,  removal  of  garbage  and  rub- 
• bish,  new  fences,  fresh  paint  and  repaired  exte- 
riors of  their  houses,  their  appetites  for  con- 
tinued improvements  and  maintenance  of  clean 
surroundings  grow.  The  exterior  improve- 
ments provided  by  the  company  stimulate 
pride  in  the  maintenance  of  the  interior  of  the 
house  on  the  part  of  the  tenant.  A steel  manu- 
facturer declares  that  the  foreigners  seem  neater 
since  the  provision  of  improved  company 
houses.  Results  of  this  kind,  it  should  be  noted, 
are  not  so  much  related  to  the  fact  of  company 
housing  as  they  are  connected  with  the  char- 
acter of  the  upkeep  of  the  houses,  a matter 
already  emphasized. 

Conclusions 

Company  housing  is,  therefore,  not  merely  a 
problem  concerned  with  the  provision  of  more 
houses  for  industrial  employees;  it  affects  not 
only  the  fundamental  relations  of  employer  and 
employee,  but  it  also  has  wide  social  significance. 

Many  employers  frankly  recognize  that  a 
social  responsibility  rests  upon  them.  Through 
their  control  of  community  streets,  lights, 
public  utilities,  houses,  recreational  centers,  and 
the  industry  which  supports  the  economic  life 
of  their  community,  employers  are  in  a posi- 


tion to  control  the  character  of  the  community. 
The  rules  promulgated  by  the  employer  are 
readily  enforcible  as  they  are  backed  by  author- 
ity to  discharge  from  employment. 

It  is  difficult  to  see  how  this  responsibility 
can  be  avoided  in  a mining  town.  The  isolation 
of  mining  towns,  the  impermanence  of  many 
of  them,  the  shifting  character  of  the  labor 
force,  the  absence  of  local  self-government  all 
cumulate  to  throw  the  resix)nsibility  upon  the 
employer.  In  a manufacturing  community 
usually  placed  near  populous  centers  where 
community  life  already  exists,  and  where  other 
agencies  are  already  established  to  provide 
community  needs,  the  responsibility  of  the 
employer  is  not  so  complete.  It  is  therefore 
not  necessary  for  him  so  thoroughly  to  control 
or  dominate  the  life  of  the  community. 

But  whether  in  the  isolated  mining  com- 
munity or  in  the  populous  city  center  the 
employer  is  placed  in  advantageous  position  in 
relation  to  the  housing  problem.  He  knows  the 
purposes  which  he  wants  his  community  to 
serve  and  can  therefore  lay  it  out  with  fore- 
thought, take  advantage  of  the  advice  of 
experts,  consult  town  planners,  architects  and 
large-scale  builders.  He  knows  how  many 
families  he  will  need  to  supply  with  houses; 
that  is,  he  can  gauge  the  supply  of  and  demand 
for  his  houses.  He  knows  the  type  of  labor  he 
will  want  to  house  and  can  erect  his  houses  to 
supply  the  needs  of  that  particular  class  of 
employees.  He  can  build  on  a large  scale  so  as 
to  cut  down  costs. 

This  survey  has  shown  cpiite  clearly  that  the 
employer  has  had  both  successes  and  failures 
in  this  work.  Too  little  attention  has  been 
given  to  the  layout  and  arrangement  of  the 
company  town;  there  has  been  a tendency  to- 
ward uniformity  in  the  type  of  house  and  its 
arrangement  on  rectangular  streets;  there  has 
been  a failure  to  study  the  desires  of  the  work- 
man in  the  matter  of  the  t\'pe  of  house  to  be 
provided.  Maintenance  has  been  neglected 
even  where  good  houses  have  l)een  originally 
provided;  and  restrictions  in  the  matter  of 
keeping  roomers  and  boarders  ha\'e  been  almost 
utterly  disregarded. 


48 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


rhere  is  no  best  type  of  company  house, 
although  the  survey  reveals  that  as  regards 
size,  the  four,  live,  and  six-room  house  is  the 
most  ])re valent.  The  conditions  which  deter- 
mine the  best  type  of  house  to  construct  are 
varied:  the  character  of  the  labor  to  be  housed, 
nati\'e  or  immigrant,  skilled  or  unskilled,  high 
paid  or  low  paid;  climatic  conditions,  accessi- 
bility of  material;  building  costs,  and  avail- 
ability of  building  labor. 

Although,  then,  there  is  no  one  best  type  of 
house,  no  one  model  to  be  followed,  it  is  never- 
theless possible  to  standardize  the  interior  i)lans 
of  houses  of  different  sizes  which  appear  to 
have  established  themselves  as  most  accept- 
able. And  every  standardization  tends  to  re- 
duce costs  and  to  make  ft)r  rapid  construction. 

Hut  a standardized  interior  need  not  mean 
uniformity  of  exterior.  And  among  the  ways 
suggested  to  a\'oid  it  are  careful  town  i)lanning; 
judicious  use  of  a few  cur\'ing  streets  which 
tend  to  minimize  the  monotony  of  similar 
houses,  as  no  long  vistas  are  exj^osed;  and 
introducing  variations  in  the  exterior  of  the 
houses.  One  employer,  in  fact,  had  a stan- 
dardized ])lan  for  a brick  house,  for  which  he 
had  14  different  elevations.  This  exterior 
variation  may  be  produced:  (i)  by  alternating 
the  position  of  houses  in  relation  to  the  street, 
as  for  instance,  in  the  case  of  a gable  house, 
turning  the  gables  to  the  street  in  one  instance 
and  the  side  in  the  next;  (2)  by  variation  in 
outlines  of  porches  and  dormer  windows;  (3) 
by  alternating  houses  with  different  forms  of 
roof  — hip,  gable,  gambrel,  or  flat;  (4)  by  alter- 
nating single  and  double  houses;  (5)  by  various 
color  schemes;  and  (t>)  by  the  use  of  varying 
types  of  material  — frame,  brick,  concrete 
(poured  concrete  or  block  construction)  and 
stucco  work  upon  frame  in  differing  com- 
binations. 

No  Excuse  for  Filth  and  Disorder 

And  finally,  the  dreariness  of  many  com- 
[)any  towns  is  remarkably  reduced  if  they  are 
properly  maintained  and  regard  had  to  the  uses 
of  vegetation.  There  should  be  no  excuse  for 
the  tolerance  of  filth  and  disorder  — this  is 


something  upon  which  all  employers  are 
agreed. 

Touching  the  evils  which  arise  from  the  dual 
relation  of  landlord  and  employer,  it  should 
be  stated  that  many  employers  are  desirous  of 
avoiding  the  evils  of  this  relationship  as  much 
as  ])Ossible,  and  decry  all  forms  of  paternalism. 
This  landlord-tenant  relationship  is  being  partly 
obviated  by  many  employers  by  separating  the 
housing  business  from  the  general  business, 
i.  e.,  by  organizing  the  housing  under  subsidiary 
companies  more  or  less  detached  from  the 
principal  business.  Many  model  towns  are 
now  conducted  by  subsidiaries  of  the  principal 
comi)any.  The  consequent  tendency  is  for  the 
employer  to  concern  himself  a little  as  possible 
with  the  landlord  business. 

Some  com])anies  are  abandoning  the  method 
of  collecting  rent  or  paying  installments  of 
purchase  price  by  deducting  from  wages  due, 
or  at  least  are  permitting  the  employees  to 
exercise  their  choice  in  the  matter.  The  em- 
])loyee  is  more  frequently  given  the  choice  of 
renting  or  buying  his  house  from  the  employer. 

Finally  there  is  the  possibility,  indeed,  the 
desire  on  the  part  of  some  large  corporations 
to  surrender  the  distinctly  community  func- 
tions to  the  independent  control  of  the  com- 
munity itself.  A model  mining  town  in  the  soft 
coal  region  of  Pennsylvania  was  erected  from 
the  ground  up  by  the  employing  company  and 
about  a year  or  two  later  was  turned  over  to 
the  community  after  the  inhabitants  had  voted 
for  its  incorporation.  Another  employer,  a 
steel  company,  left  it  to  the  employees  to 
place  restrictions  upon  the  property,  but  in 
this  particular  community  only  a building 
line  restriction  was  established,  and  conditions 
reverted  to  a state  of  disorder  and  untidiness. 

Thus  there  are,  absolutely  controlled  com- 
pany towns  where  conditions  are  ideal,  and 
others  where  conditions  are  disreputable.  On 
the  other  hand  there  are  small  industrial  towns 
without  any  company  control,  the  companies 
confining  their  housing  activities  to  a minimum, 
where  conditions  of  disorder  and  community 
slothfulness  prevail,  others  where  high  ideals 
and  efficient  community  control  exist. 


UNION  PARK  GARDENS 


A MODEL  GARDEN  CITY  EOR  SHIP  WORKERS 
AT  WILMINGTON,  DEL. 


The  influx  of  so  many  additional  ship- 
workers  and  their  families,  to  carry  out 
the  shipbuilding  program  of  the  Emer- 
gency Fleet  Corporation  during  the  late  war, 
overtaxed  and  exhausted  Wilmington’s  local 
housing  facilities.  Charges  for  board  were  high, 
and  adequate  conveniences  were  either  lacking 
or  unsatisfactory  for  skilled  workmen  and  their 
families,  so  that  it  became  imperative  to  pro- 
vide many  additional  houses. 

The  wide-awake  citizens  of  Wilmington,  and 
particularly  their  Chamber  of  Commerce,  are 
to  be  given  due  credit  for  being  far-sighted 
enough  to  appreciate  this  situation  and  for 
taking  the  initiative  when  it  became  evident 
that  local  housing  was  inadequate  to  meet  the 
rapid  growth  and  expansion  of  the  existing 
shipyards  as  well  as  the  proposed  new  ones. 

The  Liberty  Land  Company  of  Wilmington 
was  thereupon  organized  to  provide  for  the 
housing  of  the  shipworkers  of  that  city.  After 
selecting  and  obtaining  options  upon  several 
available  and  convenient  sites,  they  made  their 


needs  known  to  the  Emergency  Fleet  Corpora- 
tion, which  resulted  in  the  Union  Park  Gardens 
development. 

On  a 58 -Ac re  Tract 

The  site  is  located  at  the  intersection  of 
Union  Street  and  Lancaster  Avenue,  on  the 
outskirts  of  Wilmington,  partly  within  and 
partly  without  the  city,  and  includes  about 
fifty-eight  acres  of  beautiful  rolling  country 
possessing  many  natural  advantages.  The  tract 
is  mostly  farmland,  one  portion  of  which,  adjoin- 
ing the  woodland  section  to  the  south  which  is 
at  present  reserved  as  parkland,  is  wooded  with 
magnificent  trees.  A flowing  brook,  which  has 
been  made  a special  feature  of  the  plan,  runs 
through  the  tract.  To  the  south  there  is  the 
parkland  previously  mentioned.  Lancaster 
Avenue  and  Union  Street  are  on  the  north  and 
east  respectively,  the  latter  being  the  main 
highway  to  Baltimore  and  Washington. 

Ballinger  & Perrot,  the  architects  and  engi- 
neers, Philadelphia  and  New  York,  associated 


Plot  Plan,  Union  Park  Gardens 
49 


50 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


Typical  Row,  Union  Park  Gardens 


with  Dr.  John  Nolen,  the  well  known  town 
planner  of  Cambridge,  Mass.,  have  seized  the 
opportunities  offered  by  the  natural  advantages 
of  the  site  and  its  unusual  surroundings  to  pro- 
duee  an  American  Garden  City  of  exceptional 
merit.  The  site  is  connected  with  Wilmington 
proper  and  its  shop])ing  district  by  two  trolley 
lines,  one  on  Union  Street  and  one  on  Lancaster 
Avenue,  the  latter  giving  direct  trans])ortation 
to  and  from  the  shij^yards  of  the  Pusey  Sz  Jones 
Company,  the  Harlan  plant  of  the  Bethlehem 
Shipbuilding  Corporation  and  the  American 
Car  & k'oundry  Company,  which  may  be 
reached  in  ten  minutes  by  their  employees  for 
whom  this  de\elopment  was  conceived. 

Grant  Avenue,  which  at  present  connects 
Wilmington’s  system  of  public  parks,  has  been 
continued  through  the  development  to  the 
wooded  park  to  the  south.  It  is  120  feet  wide, 
winding  with  the  stream  previously  mentioned, 
on  either  side  of  which  are  the  roadways.  At 
certain  intervals,  where  main  cross  streets  occur, 
small  but  picturesciue  bridges  span  the  stream. 

The  town  plan  of  Luiion  Park  Gardens,  as 
conceived  by  John  Nolen,  has  been  so  arranged 
as  to  form  a part  of  the  city  of  Wilmington  by 
continuing  some  of  the  present  city  streets 
through  the  tract. 

The  plans  include  all  the  essentials  of  a thor- 
oughly organized  town.  In  addition  to  the 
houses  and  apartments,  there  is  to  be  a Com- 


munity Building  and  a sufficient  number  of 
shops  and  stores  to  meet  all  the  local  needs. 

The  tract  is  of  sufficient  area  to  provide  for 
the  erection  of  506  houses  at  the  present  time, 
leaving  a few  additional  lots  which  may  later 
be  purchased  and  built  upon,  after  allowing 
the  ground  necessary  for  the  apartment  houses, 
stores.  Community  Building  and  playground. 
A site  has  been  reserved  for  a future  school 
building  with  generous  ground  close  by  for 
baseball  and  tennis.  In  addition,  an  area, 
which  could  not  be  used  to  advantage  for  any 
other  purpose,  is  to  be  devoted  to  allotment 
gardens  for  those  who  desire  to  indulge  in 
gardening  but  who  would  not  do  so  had  they  to 
use  their  own  backyards. 

Protecting  Land  Values 

A feature  of  unusual  interest  and  worthy  of 
special  mention  is  that  of  the  purchasing  of 
adjacent  property  for  the  protection  of  land 
values  created  by  this  new  development.  Be- 
yond the  original  limits  of  the  tract  and  on  the 
far  side  of  Lancaster  Avenue  there  existed  a 
number  of  disreputable  shacks  and  negro  hovels, 
while  on  the  far  side  of  Lffiion  Street  the  land 
was  unimproved  by  buildings  of  any  sort. 
These  two  tracts  were  purchased  by  the  Na- 
tional Government  because  of  their  vital  im- 
portance to  the  project  and  the  limits  of  the 
tract  accordingly  extended  to  include  them. 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


51 


This  procedure  enables  the  Liberty  Land  Com- 
pany to  secure  and  maintain  the  increased 
property  values  which  they  are  creating  by 
the  construction  of  this  new  development, 
while  at  the  same  time  preventing  the  specu- 
lative land  operator  and  builder  from  depre- 
ciating the  character  and  cpiality  of  the  new 
project  by  the  erection  of  cheap,  unsightly  and 
undesirable  row  houses,  which  would  unriues- 
tionably  have  occurred.  As  a result  the  archi- 
tects have  been  able  to  design  the  houses,  etc., 
on  both  sides  of  Lancaster  Avenue  and  Union 
Street,  thereby  insuring  their  uniformity  in 
appearance. 

The  Community  Building,  wdth  its  various 
accommodations,  has  been  provided  because 
it  has  been  found  that,  in  industrial  towns  to 
which  skilled  mechanics  and  their  families  are 
brought  from  a distance,  it  is  just  as  essential  to 
provide  recreation  and  amusement  for  them 
as  to  provide  adequate  and  sanitary  homes. 
It  makes  for  the  contentment  of  both  the  work- 
ingman and  his  family,  which  is  the  prime  fac- 
tor in  eliminating,  or  at  least  reducing  to  a 
minimum,  the  labor  turnover  which  is  the 
most  serious  industrial  problem  at  the  present 
time. 

The  Community  Building,  besides  the  neces- 
sary offices  for  the  management  of  this  develop- 
ment, includes  an  auditorium,  with  stage  and 
dressing  rooms  on  the  main  floor  large  enough  to 


accommodate  600  ])ersons,  in  which  lectures, 
moving  picture  exhibitions  or  dances  may  be 
given.  The  basement  is  devoted  to  game  rooms, 
for  pool  and  billiards,  etc.,  and  a smoking 
room  for  men  and  a gymnasium,  with  locker 
and  shower  rooms,  having  a separate  entrance 
for  the  use  of  the  boys  and  girls  on  alternate 
days.  There  are  also  a children’s  playroom,  a 


UNION  PARK  CAtDENS 

WILMINCTON.DtL 

SHIP  WOPK.EPS  HOMES 


Four-family  House  and  Floor  Plans,  Union  Park  Gardens 


52 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


sewing  room  and  a reading  and  writing  room  in 
the  second  floor  for  the  women. 

Architectural  Features 

d'here  are  506  houses,  including  399  of  the 
group  type,  104  semi-detached  and  three  de- 
tached. The  monotonous  uniformity  in  appear- 
ance of  the  row  houses  has  been  carefully 
avoided.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  grouj) 
scheme  has  been  followed  generally,  charming 
and  attractive  effects  in  the  architectural  design 
have  been  obtained. 

Pleasing  and  di\’ersifled  architectural  effects 
have  been  obtained  by  varying  house  setbacks, 
by  using  broken  roof  lines,  by  introducing  gable 
ends,  dormers,  etc.,  at  certain  irregular  intervals 
and  at  esi)ccially  im])ortant  points  like  street  in- 
tersections, o])posite  streets,  etc.  There  are 
twenty  different  types  of  houses,  arranged  in  a 
great  variety  of  different  combinations.  Har- 
mony, simplicity  and  uniformity  have  been 
maintained  throughout  the  entire  scheme  by 
adhering  to  one  style  of  architecture,  by  limiting 
the  number  of  types  of  e.xterior  treatment,  and 
by  securing  effects  in  mass,  proportion  and  lines, 
rather  than  by  the  introduction  of  useless  and 
expensive  architectural  embellishments.  The 
groups  average  secxm  houses  and  in  only  one  or 
two  cases  do  they  exceed  ten  houses  in  number. 
Practical  knowledge,  common-sense  require- 
ments, good  taste  and  economy  have  been  em- 
ployed in  designing  these  houses  to  make  of 
them  essentially  workingmen’s  homes,  to  be 
built  economically  to  permit  of  their  purchase 
within  the  means  of  the  skilled  worker  for 
whom  they  are  being  erected. 

The  houses,  commonly  known  as  “Airlight” 
houses,  are  mostly  of  the  six  room  and  bath 
type,  with  a front  porch,  living  room,  dining 
room  and  kitchen  on  the  first  floor,  and  three 
bed  rooms  and  a bath  on  the  second  floor. 


There  is  an  ample  attic  space  above  the  bed 
room  ceilings,  which  is  well  ventilated  front  and 
back  to  keep  these  rooms  cool  in  hot  summer 
weather.  This  attic  space  has  no  living  accom- 
modations but  may  be  used  for  storage.  There 
are  a few  houses  of  the  4-room  type,  having  a 
front  porch,  living  room,  and  combination 
kitchen  and  dining  room  on  the  first  floor,  and 
two  bed  rooms  and  a bath  on  the  second  floor. 
The  bath  room  opens  upon  the  second  floor 
hallway  and  not  upon  bed  rooms.  The  plans 
call  for  ample  closets  in  all  living  rooms  and 
bed  rooms,  with  both  gas  and  electricity  for 
illumination  as  well  as  gas  for  cooking,  warm  air 
heat  and  modern  plumbing  and  fixtures. 
Laundry  trays  are  located  in  the  basement, 
conforming  to  the  local  custom.  While  pro- 
vision has  been  made  for  cooking  and  the  heat- 
ing of  water  by  gas,  a hearth  and  the  necessary 
flue  have  been  included  in  every  kitchen  so 
that,  if  desired,  a coal  range  may  be  convenient- 
ly installed  at  any  time.  Every  house  has  a 
full  basement. 

Realizing  that  the  houses  would  be  larger 
than  desired  or  needed  by  many  married  work- 
men without  children,  it  has  been  necessary  to 
provide  a limited  number  of  apartments,  con- 
sisting of  living  room,  dining  room,  kitchen, 
bed  room  and  bath  on  a single  floor.  There 
are  forty  such  apartments,  some  of  which 
have  been  located  over  the  six  shops  and  stores 
on  the  first  floor.  Some  of  the  higher  grade 
a])artments  have  been  placed  at  the  inter- 
section of  Grant  and  Lancaster  avenues,  facing 
the  Milage  Green.  Public  utilities,  including 
sewers,  water,  electricity  and  gas,  are  being 
extended  from  Wilmington  proper. 

The  houses  were  to  be  leased  at  reasonable 
rents  during  the  war,  and  arrangements  are 
now  being  made  whereby  the}’  may  be  purchased 
on  convenient  terms. 


HILTON,  VA.,  A GOVERNMENT- BUILT  WAR 

EMERGENCY  TOWN 


The  late  war  put  the  housing  problem 
forcibly  before  us  in  its  entirety.  In 
the  case  of  munitions  of  war,  and  of 
ships,  it  was  we,  the  people  of  the  United 
States,  who  were  investing  the  money,  who  were 
furnishing  the  labor,  and  who  were  vitally  con- 
cerned — profit,  safety,  and  honor  — in  the 
rapidity  and  amount  of  production. 

We  are  at  the  beginning  of  the  problem;  we 
have  not  solved  it;  but  we  have  at  last,  and 
after  heartbreaking  delays,  begun  to  appre- 
ciate the  vital  connection  between  living  con- 
ditions, good  citizenship,  and  industrial  effi- 
ciency, and  we  appropriated  Government 

money  to  provide among  other  things  — 

necessary  housing  for  war  workers  in  munition 
plants  and  shipyards. 

The  Newport  News  Shipbuilding  and  Dry 
Dock  Company,  as  long  ago  as  October,  1917, 
saw  that  Government  assistance  in  war  housing 
developments  would  be  absolutely  essential, 
and  therefore  would  some  time  be  provided. 
The  company  accordingly  employed  Mr.  H.  V. 
Hubbard,  of  the  firm  of  Pray,  Hubbard  and 
White,  as  landscape  architect,  and  Mr.  F.  H. 
Bulot  as  engineer,  to  prepare  a scheme  for  the 
development  of  land  for  500  houses  to  serve  the 
shipyard  workers,  and  Mr.  Francis  Y.  Joannes 
was  engaged  as  architect.  The  company 
hoped,  as  proved  to  be  the  case,  that  when 
Government  loans  for  such  work  finally  became 
available  the  plans  would  be  so  far  along  that 
they  might  be  accepted  without  great  changes 
and  quickly  put  under  construction. 

This  co-operation  of  architect,  engineer,  and 
landscape  architect  and  town  planner  is  an  ideal 
one,  reflecting  as  it  does  the  three  great  require- 
ments of  any  such  development:  beauty  and 
utility  of  houses  and  public  buildings;  adapta- 
tion of  public  utilities  to  use,  to  local  condi- 
tions, and  to  considerations  of  economy;  and 


beauty  of  ground  and  adaptation  to  topog- 
raphy and  to  the  life  and  growth  of  the  com- 
munity. 

The  piece  of  land  chosen  was  the  nearest  to 
the  shipyards  which  could  be  obtained  of  suffi- 
cient size  and  cjuality.  The  taking  up  of  land 
for  other  governmental  purposes  forced  the  site 
for  Hilton  about  two  miles  from  the  ship- 
yards, but  both  railroad  and  trolley  service 
make  it  reasonably  accessible. 

Having  worked  out  a tentative  plan  for  the 
new  town  on  the  basis  of  all  the  local  conditions 
and  the  known  preferences  of  the  workers  as 
to  lot  sizes,  and  so  on,  it  was  possible  to  estimate 
roughly  what  would  be  the  cost  of  this  town, 
“complete  and  ready  to  serve,”  and  by  much 
laborious  fitting  and  changing  it  seemed  to  be 
possible  in  this  case  to  evolve  a plan  which 
would  produce  the  necessary  accommodations 
for  the  possible  price,  without  being  obliged  to 
sacrifice  decency,  permanency,  convenience, 
space,  sanitation,  or  — we  believe  — some 
noticeable  degree  of  beauty.  There  is  a mini- 
mum figure  below  which  it  is  not  economy  to 
reduce  cost  per  cubic  foot  for  a house.  There  is 
a still  more  irreduceable  minimum  in  water- 
supply  and  sewerage.  Roads,  however,  may  be 
sometimes  opened  but  not  paved,  parks  may  be 
set  aside  but  not  developed,  thus  justly  post- 
poning until  later  times  the  payment  for  some 
of  the  things  which  are  to  be  enjoyed  by  later 
generations. 

Topography  of  the  Townsite 

The  land  chosen  is  practically  flat  from  the 
railroad  to  within  a short  distance  of  the  water. 
Along  the  shore  it  is  broken  by  the  steep-sided 
valleys  of  the  two  little  brooks  shown  on  the 
plan.  The  scheme  is  a modified  gridiron,  based 
on  a main  axis  from  the  town  square  on  the 
main  highway  to  the  community  building  on  the 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


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Hilton  Village. — -4  Housing  Development  Near  Newport  News,  Va.,  for  the  Newport  News  Ship- 
building isr  Dry  Dock  Co.  Harry  T’.  Hubbard,  Landscape  Architect;  Francis  V.  Joannes, 
Architect;  Francis  H.  Bulot,  Sanitary  Engineer. 


55 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


little  hill  between  the  brooks,  looking  out  across 
the  James  River.  The  minor  streets,  running 
parallel  to  the  shore,  some  carrying  through  to 
future  development  north  and  south,  some 
capable  of  being  dead  ended,  are  treated  with 
little  neighborhood  open  spaces  for  interest  and 
additional  feeling  of  room.  The  railroad  station 
faces  on  a little  square  of  its  own,  connected 
directly  with  the  town  square.  A community 
garage  is  next  the  railroad  station  square. 

Two  churches,  an  apartment  house  and  the 
few  stores  surround  “Hilton  Square,”  and 
two  more  churches,  with  the  community  build- 
ing, give  importance  to  the  river  end  of  the 
broad  central  street. 

The  land  next  the  river,  divided  into  larger 
lots,  is  held  to  be  used  for  houses  by  those  who 
can  afford  to  spend  more  than  the  average  and 
who  will  probably  buy  and  build  for  them- 
selves. The  park  occupies  the  rough  land  in  the 
brook  bottom  in  front  of  the  community 
building.  The  playfield  occupies  the  land  on  the 
outskirts  of  the  development  next  the  railroad 
and  south  of  “Station  Square.”  Neither  park 
nor  playfield  needs  much  expenditure  at  once. 
They  are  large  enough  to  serve  several  times  the 
population  at  present  expected,  and  the  future 
population  may  do  its  share  of  paying  for  their 
development. 

The  lots  vary  from  ii8  to  130  feet  deep, 
since  many  of  the  people  want  gardens,  the 
streets  are  50  or  100  feet  wide,  but  the  road- 
ways, excepting  Warwick  County  road,  are 
but  20  and  24  feet  wide,  because  they  are,  and 
should  remain,  local  streets,  with  no  possible 
press  of  traffic. 

Types  of  Houses 

Having  arrived  at  an  arrangement  of  streets 
and  blocks  which  promised  a reasonable  and 
economical  result  and  an  opportunity  for  pla- 
cing a maximum  number  of  dwellings  without 
exceeding  the  preferred  population  per  acre, 
the  type,  size,  and  location  of  buildings  and 
their  effects  upon  lot-sizes  became  the  primary 
considerations.  A rough  schedule  of  quantities 
of  four-,  five-,  six-,  seven-,  and  eight-room  houses 
was  agreed  upon,  and  preliminary  sketches 


were  made  for  each  of  these  types  of  houses. 
It  was  deemed  desirable  in  order  to  avoid  the 
“pill-box”  effect  of  a large  group  of  small 
houses  to  introduce  a certain  number  of  two- 
family  houses  in  such  a way  as  to  solidify  the 
general  appearance  of  the  village  and  endeavor 
to  break  up  this  inevitable  “pill-box”  effect. 
In  laying  out  the  houses,  the  possibility  of 
forming  double  houses  by  combining  two  single 
houses  was  constantly  borne  in  mind,  but  a 
peculiar  local  condition  which  required  the 
placing  of  the  chimney  near  the  center  of  each 
dwelling,  afforded  an  opportunity  not  possible 
in  the  usual  housing  developments  of  combin- 
ing single  houses  back  to  back  as  well  as  side 
to  side,  and  some  surprisingly  interesting  com- 
positions resulted.  Naturally  this  afforded  a 
means  of  increasing  the  number  of  types  of 
houses  without  multiplying  to  an  unreasonable 
degree  the  quantities  of  details  and  material 
sheets  required  for  carrying  out  the  work.  In 
placing  houses  on  the  property  plan  it  was 
found  that  the  plans  of  practically  all  single 
houses  would  have  to  be  reversed,  thus  creating 
again  a number  of  new  types. 

The  lot  subdivisions  were  not  completely 
determined  until  after  the  plans  of  the  houses 
had  been  settled,  and  where  crowding  could 
not  be  avoided  otherwise,  the  type  of  house 
was  changed  so  as  to  maintain  the  established 
minimum  spacing  of  sixteen  feet  between 
houses  having  the  same  setbacks  from  the 
street. 

All  Houses  of  Frame  Construction 

It  was  practically  decided  at  the  outset  that 
inasmuch  as  the  country  was  in  or  adjacent 
to  the  Southern  lumber  district,  all  of  the 
houses  should  be  of  frame  construction. 

The  exterior  character  of  the  houses  was 
determined  on  a basis  of  permanency  and  up- 
keep, and  the  resulting  schedule  of  exterior 
treatment  shows  a preponderance  of  stucco 
with  a smaller  percentage  of  houses  of  siding  or 
shingles.  All  of  the  houses  will  have  slate  roofs. 
As  the  climate  does  not  make  furnace  heat 
necessary,  no  cellars  are  excavated,  but,  in 
order  to  take  care  of  wood  and  coal  sujiplies 


56 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


Typical  Elevations  of  Street  Fronts  and  House  Rows.  Hilton  Village. — Francis  Y.  Joannes,  Architect. 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


57 


y L C 0 N 0 ■ f LOOL-  P LA  N ■ 


r IV  L ■ LOOM  ■ HOUy  t ■ TYP  L-  AAI 


- PIVt-  ILOOH-  HOUyt-  TYPE-AI- 


• yf.C  ON 0 -<1=10011  PLAN- 
- FOUL.- ILOOM- HOU/L- TYPE- Cl - 


• yix  • LOOH-HOU/L-TYPt-LI  - TT  PE  -LI  • 


Typical  House  Flans.  Hilton  Village. 


58 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


Corner  of  Park  Court,  Hilton  Village. 


and  garden  tools,  a small  outbuilding  is  pro- 
vided for  each  family.  In  order,  again,  to  avoid 
the  dotting  of  the  landscape  with  what  might 
appear  to  be  small  dog  houses,  these  are  com- 
bined, wherever  they  can  be,  in  twos,  threes, 
and  fours,  thereby  improving  the  general 
appearance  with  a resulting  economy  in  con- 
struction. These  outbuildings  are  made  large 
enough  to  house  a small  automobile. 

The  contractor  for  the  construction  work 
was  selected  early,  and  a sufficient  number  of 
estimates  were  made  of  the  cost  of  the  various 
types  of  houses.  By  comparing  the  total  cost 
with  the  wage  schedule  of  the  prospective 
tenants,  it  was  found  that  the  range  of  rents 
or  sale  prices  was  safely  within  the  amounts 
which  the  different  t\pes  of  skilled  labor  could 
afford.  To  make  an  adequate  provision,  how- 
ever, for  the  low  priced,  white,  semi-skilled 
mechanic  or  young  apprentice,  married,  but 


with  few  or  no  children,  it  was  therefore  deter- 
mined to  place  a row  of  terrace  t}pe  of  house 
along  the  Warwick  County  road,  which  is  an 
improved  thoroughfare,  probably  less  desirable 
for  the  better  t>qDe  of  development.  These  row 
houses  are  four  rooms  each,  a combination 
kitchen  and  dining  room  being  provided.  The 
end  houses  of  each  row  are,  however,  five-  and 
six-room  houses,  affording  a better  archi- 
tectural termination  and  a further  variation  in 
accommodation.  This  accomplished  a further 
result  of  again  solidifying  the  appearance  of  the 
village,  particularly  in  its  aspect  to  one  passing 
through  the  village  by  way  of  W arwick  County 
road.  At  the  Village  Green  or  Square  there  are 
allotments  for  twenty  stores  having  small 
apartments  in  the  second  story.  Pro^dsion  is 
also  made  in  the  store  groups  for  a motion  picture 
theater,  billiard  hall  and  bowling  alley,  and  a 
hall  for  lodge  meetings,  religious  meetings, 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


59 


theatricals  and  other  community  activities. 
P"our  lots  have  been  set  aside  for  churches,  and 
these  will  be  assigned  to  the  denominations 
which  may  require  them,  the  financing  and 
building  of  these  being  left  largely  to  the  com- 
munity. Provision  is  made  for  a grade  school, 
which  has  combined  with  it  a meeting  room, 
gymnasium,  domestic  science  room,  and  other 
community  features. 

Because  of  the  fact  that  the  major  part  of 
the  passenger  transportation  will  be  furnished 
by  the  extension  of  the  Newport  News  trolley 
service,  nothing  more  than  a substantial  shelter 
will  be  constructed  for  the  railway  station  in 
connection  with  the  Booster  Station  for  water 
service  until  such  time  as  traffic  demands 
develop. 

Eliminating  “Sets”  of  Plans 

In  preparing  working  drawings  and  details 
it  was  determined  to  place  all  of  the  plans  and 
elevations  of  each  type  of  house  on  one  sheet, 
and  all  of  the  details  in  connection  with  each 
type  on  single  sheets,  so  that  a foreman  could 
be  given  a single  sheet  containing  all  the  in- 
formation he  required  to  construct  the  house 
and  not  be  hampered  by  the  loss  of  single  ]Dlans 
or  elevations  from  “sets”  of  prints  prepared  in 
the  usual  way.  A single  specification  covers 
the  work  on  all  dwellings.  The  dimensions  of 
all  dwellings  are  based  on  market  sizes  of 


framing  lumber,  the  story  heights  being  estab- 
lished on  the  basis  of  1 6-foot  studs  cut  8 feet 
5 inches  and  7 feet  7 inches.  This  cut  of 
studding  would  not  have  been  an  economical 
one  except  for  a wholesale  operation  such  as 
this.  The  contractor  practically  established  a 
“pre-cut”  house  proposition  on  the  site,  all 
joists,  studding  and  framing  being  cut  to 
lengths,  ])roperly  piled  and  issued  as  required  in 
accordance  with  material  schedules  for  each 
house.  The  bulk  of  the  material  was  ordered 
by  the  Construction  Division  of  the  Army 
on  bills  of  materials  furnished  by  the  con- 
tractor. For  certain  items  orders  were  placed 
directly  by  the  owners  as  agents  of  the  United 
States. 

Preliminary  drawings  and  studies  were  begun 
on  December  24,  1917,  and  actual  construction 
work  began  early  in  May,  1918.  All  matters 
pertaining  to  design  were  supervised  until  the 
middle  of  April  by  the  Committee  on  Industrial 
Housing,  Council  of  National  Defense  (afterward 
the  Housing  Bureau,  Department  of  Labor). 
After  that  time  the  supervision  for  the  Govern- 
ment was  cared  for  by  the  Housing  Division 
of  the  United  States  Shipping  Board. 

Apartment  Buildings 

Another  development  consists  of  four  apart- 
ment buildings,  four  stories  high,  of  the  open 
stair  tenement  type,  each  building  containing 


Connuinuty  Hall  and  the  School,  Looking  Toward  Newport  News  and  Shi pyards,  Hilton  ]'itlage 


60 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


eighty-four  apartments  of  two,  three  and  four 
rooms  each.  These  are  erected  within  the  city 
limits,  near  the  shipyard,  and  form  a very  im- 
]>ortant  adjunct  to  the  village  development 
in  that  they  provide  immediate  quarters  for 
new  workers  who  might  not  be  able  to  take  a 
house  and  furnish  it  before  knowing  that  they 
were  going  to  remain.  A place  is  also  provided 
for  the  young  married  mechanic  who  can  set 


up  housekeeping  in  two  or  three  rooms  and 
later,  when  his  family  grows,  he  will  naturally 
gravitate  to  the  village  for  larger  quarters  and 
surroundings.  Floaters  are  also  taken  care 
of,  and,  as  rents  are  collected  weekly,  not 
more  than  a week’s  rent  should  be  lost.  These 
buildings  will  contain  a general  store,  drug 
store,  kindergarten,  restaurant,  men’s  club, 
and  possibly  a branch  bank  and  branch  library. 


On  U'(/ra7Vyt  Comity  Road,  S/iounng  H House  and  Kon'  Xo.  8,  Hilton  Village. 


HOUSING  AND  THE  LAND 

PROBLEM 


{From  the  May,  1918,  Review  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics) 

By  LEIEUR  MAGNUSSON 


The  most  important  problem  connected 
with  the  housing  question  is  the  land 
problem,  namely,  how  to  increase  the 
available  supply  of  building  land,  and  how 
permanently  to  keep  the  price  of  it  within  the 
means  of  the  workingman. 

Employers  in  this  country  have  attempted  to 
solve  the  problem  by  moving  their  establish- 
ments from  the  congested  urban  centers  to  out- 
lying rural  and  semirural  districts  where  land  is 
available  at  more  moderate  prices.  As  evidence 
of  this  movement  of  industry  the  United  States 
census  of  manufactures  shows  from  census  to 
census  an  increasing  proportion  of  the  popula- 
tion, the  number  of  establishments,  and  the 
number  of  wage  earners  outside  of  the  limits  of 
certain  metropolitan  districts  which  are  in 
reality  single  industrial  areas.  Furthermore,  a 
recent  survey  of  company  housing  undertaken 
by  this  bureau  shows  that  company  housing 
developments  are  either  new  town  develop- 
ments or  are  located  in  the  suburbs  of  larger 
cities,  indicating  the  extent  to  which  industrial 
decentralization  underlies  company  housing. 
The  primary  reason  pointed  out  by  employers 
for  this  movement  away  from  the  cities  has  been 
a desire  for  more  land  as  well  as  cheaper  land, 
emphasized  by  them  in  such  expressions  as 
“lower  taxes,  lower  rentals,  and  avoidance  of 
congestion,”  while  community  benefits  natural- 
ly flowing  from  more  land  and  cheaper  land  are 
expressed  as  a desire  for  more  light  and  air  and 
quieter  surroundings. 

Growth  of  Speculative  Profits  In 
Company  Towns 

Employers  admittedly  have  not  solved  the 
land  problem  in  connection  with  their  housing 


enterprises  by  merely  migrating  from  the  city 
to  the  country  districts.  The  study  which  the 
bureau  made  of  company  housing  shows  among 
other  things  that  there  has  been  only  slight 
attempts  on  the  part  of  employers  as  a whole 
to  control  the  uses  to  which  land  may  be 
adapted  by  careful  town  planning,  that  there 
has  been  little  or  no  positive  action  taken  to 
prevent  overcrowding,  and  that  no  method  has 
been  devised  either  wholly  or  partly  successful 
in  controlling  speculation  in  company  towns. 
Some  employers,  in  fact,  have  encouraged  the 
element  of  speculation  in  offering  their  houses 
to  the  workman.  Possibilities  of  the  future 
growth  of  the  company  town  are  pointed  out, 
“whether  you  buy  to  hold  for  an  increase,  or  to 
build  a home  to  live  in  or  to  rent.”  The  buyer 
is  lured  by  “$3  cash  and  $2  per  week  until  paid, 
no  interest,  no  taxes,  for  three  years.”* 

While  in  general  increased  land  values  in 
company  towns  have  not  been  reflected  in 
increased  rents,  such  increases  in  land  values 
have  naturally  occurred  in  some  company 
towns.  An  instance  in  point  is  Morgan  Park, 
Duluth,  Minn.,  which  has  been  developed  by 
the  United  States  Steel  Corporation.  The  land 
was  originally  virgin  land,  having  only  an 
agricultural  value.  In  1906  the  assessed  value 
of  1,250  acres  within  the  area  purchased  by  the 
steel  corporation  was  $29,500,  or  $23.60  per 
acre,  according  to  the  records  of  the  ofiice  of 
the  tax  assessor  of  the  city  of  Duluth,  Minn. 
As  land  is  assessed  by  the  city  at  40  per  cent  of 

*On  the  other  hand,  it  is  only  fair  to  point  out  that  in  the 
majoritj'  of  cases  speculation  in  land  has  not  as  yet  generally 
develoijed  in  company  towns  because  of  the  prevailing  practice  of 
employers  to  rent  and  not  to  sell  land  and  liouses  to  their  work- 
men. Rents  are  generally  low  and  have  not  been  increased  lor  a 
period  of  years;  in  fact  in  some  instances  it  would  ha\'e  been 
desirable  to  increase  rentals  and  to  improve  the  surroundings  and 
general  maintenance  of  the  ])ro])crty  with  the  increased  return. 


61 


62 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


its  “full  and  true”  value,  the  value  i>er  acre  at 
that  time  was  probably  about  $59.  Of  the 
ap])roximate  190  acres  in  the  townsite  of  Mor- 
gan Park,  the  141  acres  which  had  been  im- 
proved by  the  end  of  1916  have  been  assessed 
at  $720  per  acre;  and  the  additional  49  acres 
im])roved  in  1917  have  been  assessed  at  $1,000 
]rer  acre.  'Phis  would  make  the  average  assessed 
value  of  the  actual  189  acres  for  which  the 
figures  apply  about  $791  per  acre,  or  a 
“full  and  true”  value  of  $1,975  per  acre  at 
the  present  time.  This  is  $375,250  for  the 
whole  tract  of  igo  acres  comprising  the  town 
site.  However,  it  should  be  stated  that  thus 
far  much  of  this  value  is  the  result  of  improve- 
ments put  in  by  the  Morgan  Park  Company. 

“Unearned  Increments”  of 
Two  Towns 

Private  investigators  have  shown  (juite  deh- 
nitely  in  two  com])any  towns  — Gary,  Ind.,and 
Lackawanna,  N.  V. — which  were  intensively 
studied  for  that  purpose,  the  amount  of  “un- 
earned increments”  which  have  been  created  in 
those  towns.* 

In  Gary,  Ind.,  the  price  })aid  for  land  per  acre 
averaged  about  $814.  The  total  and  final 
cost,  therefore,  of  the  9,000  acres  bought  there 
by  the  United  States  Steel  Corporation  may 
roughl}'  be  stated  at  $7,200,000.  The  area  in 
Gary  which  was  not  bought  by  the  corporation 
was  9,749  acres.  A liberal  estimate  of  $75  ]:>er 
acre  in  iqob  has  been  jilaced  upon  this  less 
desirable  land.  The  total  cost  of  the  latter  is 
therefore  $731,1  75.  This  would  make  the  value 
of  the  total  land  area  of  Gary  a])proximately 
$8,000,000  at  the  time  of  the  purchase  by  the 
Steel  Corporation  in  1906.  The  value  of  this 
land  in  1915,  as  ascertained  from  its  assessed 
valuation,  which  is  about  20  per  cent  of  its 
actual  value,  was  about  $40,020,725.  The 
value  of  the  Steel  Plant  yards  should  be  de- 
ducted as  the  steel  company  cannot  realize  any 
increase  in  the  value  of  these.  Thus  the  value 

*The  studies  in  question  were  made  by  special  investigators 
for  the  New  York  committee  interested  in  conserving  land  values 
for  community  purposes.  One  of  these  studies  has  been  printed: 
“The  Unearned  Increment  in  Gary  (Ind.),”  by  Robert  (Murray 
IIaig.  (Pol.  Science  Quart.  X.  Y.  Columbia  University  Press, 
iMarch.  1917.) 


of  the  townsite  of  Gary,  Ind.,  in  1906  was 
$6,414,455  and  its  selling  value  in  1915,  $33,- 
455,900,  an  increase  of  $27,031,445. 

To  arrive  at  the  unearned  increment,  how- 
ever, certain  deductions  must  necessarily  be 
made  for  values  which  have  been  created  or 
added  to  the  land  since  1906.  These  include 
(No.  i)  expenses  of  layout  and  administration 
by  the  Gary  Land  Co.,  (No.  2)  advanced  pay- 
ment of  taxes  or  non-revenue  producing  prop- 
erty, and  (No.  3)  local  improvements.  Interest 
has  not  been  deducted  because  the  ground 
rents  have  been  assumed  to  represent  a fair 
return  upon  the  original  outlay;  and  another 
factor  not  considered  is  the  effect  of  the  price 
level  upon  the  increment.  Some  of  the  increase 
has  been  due  to  a decline  in  the  purchasing 
power  of  money,  the  wholesale  price  index  of 
the  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics*  standing  at 
88  in  1906  and  100  in  1915,  or  an  increase  of 
14  per  cent.  Considering  all  these  allowances, 
with  the  exceptions  noted,  a deduction  of 
$5,225,713  is  made  by  the  investigator  from  the 
apparent  increase  in  value  of  $27,031,445. 
“The  amount  of  the  increment  which  might 
have  been  conserved  is  thus  found  to  be 
$21,805,732,”  an  amount  which,  it  is  concluded, 
errs  on  the  whole  in  the  direction  of  reducing 
the  unearned  increment. 

Improvements  Raise  Land  Values 

At  Lackawanna,  N.  Y.,  near  Buffalo,  where 
the  Lackawannat  Steel  Company  created  a new 
city  on  vacant  land  in  1899,  the  land  was  worth 
not  over  $770,000,  but  the  steel  company  had 
to  pay  $1,407,000  for  the  1,438  acres  which  it 
purchased.  The  remaining  2,414  acres  (also 
within  the  city  site)  were  estimated  as  worth 
$1,279,000.  The  total  value  then  was  $2,686,- 
000.  If  the  plant  land  on  which  no  speculative 
value  can  be  realized  is  excluded  the  value  was 
$1,983,000. 

^Bulletin  No.  200,  P.  13. 

|A  jMemorandum  to  the  Steel  Corporation:  “A  Plan  Itie 
Conservation  of  Future  Increments  of  Land  Values  of  Ojibway 
and  for  Conversion  of  the  Same  into  Additional  Revenues  for 
Community  Purposes.”  For  private  circulation.  The  chairman 
of  this  committee  is  Lawson  Purdy,  head  of  the_  department  of 
taxes  and  assessments,  New  York  City,  and  its  secretary  is 
Richard  S.  Childs,  general  manager  of  the  Bon  Ami  Co.,  New  \ ork 
City.  This  memorandum  has  been  used  by  the  Bureau  of  Labor 
Statistics  by  special  permission. 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


63 


Lackawanna  is  a city  of  over  14,000  popula- 
tion and  the  value  of  the  townsite  land  is  now 
estimated  at  $9,016,000,  leaving  a net  incre- 
ment of  $6,788,000,  which  has  gone  to  private 
owners  and  speculators. 

Thus  company-controlled  towns,  no  less 
than  all  other  cities,  have  suffered  from  the 
land  speculator  who  withholds  land  from  the 
market  until  such  time  as  an  effective  demand 
shall  give  him  the  price  he  asks;  and  the 
population  of  the  company  town  again  faces 
the  problem  which  it  faced  in  the  congested 
city  — namely,  how  to  prevent  or  minimize  the 
dissipation  of  land  values  to  private  land 
owners,  and  how  to  secure  the  greatest  amount 
of  social  return  in  terms  of  health  and  recrea- 
tion and  better  community  surroundings. 

Plans  for  the  Diversion  of  Land 
Values  for  Community  Purposes 

In  order  to  secure  the  ends  in  question  it  is 
necessary  to  devise  new  methods  which  have 
not  yet  been  tried  out  in  housing  enterprises 
except  to  a limited  extent.  These  methods, 
however,  involve  no  new  principles,  as  will  be 
noted  from  the  description  of  them. 

Improved  Company  Housings. — Directly,  or 
indirectly  through  a subsidiary  or  controlled 
company,  the  employer  acquires  land  or  uses 
plant  land,  and  constructs  houses  for  his  em- 
ployees. He  has  the  advantage  of  securing  land 
in  outlying  districts  at  its  agricultural  value. 
Control  of  his  labor,  stabilizing  it,  and  securing 
a steady  supply  of  labor,  and  not  speculation 
are  to  be  the  objects  sought.  There  is  also  the 
advantage  of  wholesale  operations.  The  em- 
ployer may  rent  or  sell  his  houses.  If  the 
employer  rents  his  houses  he  may  keep  his 
rents  moderately  low,  or  he  may  charge  average 
prevailing  rentals  and  use  his  returns  to  improve 
his  property  and  secure  certain  social  and 
community  benefits  to  his  employees.  If  he 
sells,  he  may  do  so  at  cost,  plus  interest,  and  on 
favorable  terms,  thereby  attracting  his  em- 
ployees. He  may  prevent  easy  speculation  by 
a system  of  selling  for  restricted  usages,  recog- 
nized as  cumbersome,  however,  and  difficult  of 
execution.  Only  by  a system  of  permanent 


ownership  or  control,  adoption  of  the  principle 
of  limited  return,  and  application  of  rentals  to 
community  purposes  will  he  be  able  to  divert 
the  increases  in  community  values  to  the 
benefit  of  the  community. 

But  company  housing  has  this  disadvantage, 
that  it  gives  no  control  to,  or  places  no  re- 
sponsibility upon,  the  members  of  the  com- 
munity. The  Bureau  in  its  investigation  dis- 
covered only  one  employer  who  proposed  giving 
the  employees  a measure  of  control  in  the 
housing  undertaking.  That  employer  sug- 
gested the  placing  of  a representative  of  the 
men  on  the  Board  of  Trustees  of  the  fund  which 
the  company  proposed  to  provide  for  the  con- 
struction and  sale  of  houses  to  its  men.  But 
such  representation  obviously  is  not  sufficiently 
far-reaching  to  effect  the  objects  under  dis- 
cussion here. 

Perhaps  in  the  long  run,  the  only  way  in 
which  company  development  can  be  success- 
fully made  to  conserve  all  land  values  for  the 
community  is  by  adoption  of  the  method 
sketched  by  the  committee  on  new  industrial 
towns,  presented  as  a memorandum  to  the 
Steel  Corporation  and  suggested  for  its  guid- 
ance in  the  developments  of  its  new  steel  town 
of  Ojibway,  Canada.*  The  plan  is  of  such 
interest  as  to  make  it  seem  worth  while  to 
present  it  in  detail. 

When  the  time  comes  for  admitting  the 
private  builders  and  opening  the  lots  to  acquisi- 
tion and  settlement,  the  Steel  Corporation,  it  is 
proposed,  should  organize  the  “Ojibway  Land 
Company,”  select  its  first  Board  of  Directors, 
turn  over  to  it  in  convenient  installments  the 
title  to  the  land  (not  including  plant  land)  and 
all  the  uncompleted  contract  for  streets,  sewers, 
etc.,  and  accept  in  return  the  land  company’s 
serial  mortgage  bonds,  eciuivalent  to  the  cost 
of  the  land  and  improvements,  up  to  date,  plus 
a small  profit,  say  3 ]:>er  cent,  inasmuch  as  the 
pur})ose  of  the  Steel  Company  is  primarily  to 
secure  labor  and  not  to  make  a iirofit.  The 
land  com])any  would  then  make  up  its  tentati\'e 

*A  ^[emoran(lum  of  llie  Steel  Corporation:  “.V  Plan  for  the 
Conservation  of  IViture  Increments  of  Land  Values  at  Ojibway 
and  for  Conversion  of  the  Same  into  Additional  Revenues  for 
community  Puriioses.”  For  pri\-ate  circulation. 


64 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


rental  price  list  for  the  lots  and  would  make  the 
following 

ann()uncp:ment 

No  land  will  be  sold.  Title  will  remain  in  the  land 
company  and  will  be  handled  as  a community  invest- 
ment. When  the  city  is  well  established,  the  Board  of 
Directors  of  the  Land  Company  will  be  selectetl  by 
])opular  election. 

.\ny  responsible  person  may  select  and  become  the 
tenant  of  any  lot  or  lots  in  Ojibway  not  previously 
taken  and  a rental  will  be  charged  proportionate  to  the 
value  thereof  and  roughly  eciuivalent  to  what  other 
l>ersons  are  known  to  be  willing  to  pay. 

Rentals  will  be  readjustable  from  time  to  time  like 
lax  valuations,  with  due  consideration  of  the  comple- 
tion of  local  improvements,  the  growth  of  the  neighbor- 
hood, the  ])oj)ulation  of  the  city,  etc.,  with  the  intent  of 
charging  whatever  the  leaseholds  are  worth  and  of 
securing  for  the  community,  as  represented  by  the 
land  company,  approximately  all  the  “economic  ground 
rent.”  The  readjustments  of  rental  will  be  made  uni- 
formlv  and  scientifically  on  a frontage  basis,  and  no 
leaseholder’s  rent  will  be  raised  or  decreased  e.xcept  as 
])art  of  a general  readjustment  affecting  all  the  land  in 
the  neighborhood  the  value  of  which  has  altered,  and 
applicable  impartially  to  his  neighbors  as  well  as  to 
himself. 

These  ground  leases  will  be  for  5 years  on  business 
streets,  and  15  years  on  residential  streets,  the  lease- 
holder, his  heirs  or  assigns  having  perpetually  the 
preference  in  renewals.  Buildings  on  such  leaseholds 
will  not  “fall  in"  or  become  the  property  of  the  land 
companv,  as  is  the  usual  procedure  in  land  leases  if 
the  leaseholder  declines  to  renew. 

If  the  leaseholder  declines  to  renew,  the  land  com- 
panv may  allow  him  to  remain  in  possession  upon  pay- 
ment month  by  month  of  the  newly  established  ground 
rental  until  a new  lessee  is  found  who  will  take  over  the 
building  and  pay  its  fair  market  value  or  a 6 per  cent 
rental  thereon,  whereupon  the  leaseholder  must  vacate. 

If  the  leaseln)lder  declines  to  renew,  and  vacates, 
the  land  company  may  offer  the  land  and  building 
together  for  a five  year  (or  fifteen  year)  lease  at  not 
less  than  the  regular  land  rent  plus  6 per  cent  of  the 
fair  market  value  of  the  building  (said  value  beign 
subject  to  an  appropriate  annual  allowance  for  de- 
preciation, the  owner  meanwhile  being  free  to  find  a 
tenant  at  better  terms  if  he  can  before  the  land  com- 
panv finds  one  at  the  fi.xed  rate.  Such  a tenant  will 
be  j)ledged  to  pay  the  land  rent  to  the  land  company 
direct  and  the  building  rent  direct  to  the  owner.  The 
owner  will  be  free  to  disposess  the  tenant  for  non- 
pavment  of  the  building  rent,  and  the  tenant,  although 
not  thereafter  occupying  the  premises,  will  still  be 
liable  to  the  land  company  for  the  land  rent  until  the 
lease  expires.  The  land  company  will  also  be  free  to 
dispossess  the  tenant  for  non-payment  of  land  rent  and 
the  tenant  will  still  be  liable  to  the  owner  of  the  build- 
ing for  the  building  rent  till  the  lease  expires. 


While  the  property  is  without  a leaseholder,  the 
land  comj)any  will  receive  no  ground  rent  and  the 
owner  no  income  from,  or  use  of,  the  building,  and  they 
thus  become  partners  in  their  desire  to  find  a new  ten- 
ant. The  land  company  also  retains  the  option  of  pur- 
chasing the  building  of  a leaseholder  who  declines  to 
renew  at  its  market  value  as  impartially  determined  by 
afair  jury  of  three  arbitrators,and  renting  or  reselling  it. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  no  man  who  builds  in  the 
city  can  have  any  hope  of  profit  or  fear  of  loss  in  the 
changing  of  value  that  the  lapse  of  time  may  bring 
to  his  land.  He  will  pay  a rent  greater  than  ordinary 
taxes,  a rent  somewhat  less,  however,  than  the  amount 
he  would  otherwise  pay  in  taxes,  mortgage  interest,  and 
interest  on  his  equity  combined.  He  will  not  have  to 
raise  any  principal  to  invest  in  land. 

He  benefits  further  by  the  fact  that  none  of  his 
ground  rent  goes  to  banks  and  private  capital,  but  all 
goes  into  the  land  company’s  treasury  to  be  re-ex- 
pended for  the  benefit  of  himself  and  his  fellow  towns- 
people. 

The  land  comj)any  will  take  no  profits  and  all  the 
income  will  be  used  in  some  way  for  the  benefit  of  the 
people  living  in  the  land  company  tract. 

The  right  is  reserved  of  enacting  new  rules  from  time 
to  time  controlling  the  use  of  the  land  in  the  interest  of 
the  general  public  welfare  and  of  the  protection  of 
the  land  values. 

There  remains  the  vital  question  of  how  we  can 
make  it  safe  for  a tenant  to  erect  costly  permanent 
buildings.  Obviously  if  the  character  of  a neighborhood 
changes  radically  by  reason  of  the  growth  of  the  city, 
a building  may  become  obsolete  in  that  location  and 
an  encumbrance,  fit  only  to  be  torn  down  to  make 
way  for  a type  of  building  more  suited  to  the  altered 
demands  of  the  neighborhood. 

This  difficulty  we  meet  by  careful  city  planning,  and 
building  regulation  which  so  diminishes  this  hazard 
that  there  will  be  less  danger  of  such  premature 
obsolescence  of  buildings  in  this  city  than  there  is  under 
ordinary  conditions  elsewhere. 

We  restrict  every  street  as  to  the  use  of  the  land 
for  stores,  factories,  or  residences,  respectively,  and  as 
to  the  height  of  buildings,  percentage  of  the  lot  that 
mav  be  covered,  and  minimum  value  of  the  building 
that  may  be  erected  thereon.  Thus  the  man  who  builds 
a home  will  know  positively  that  no  stores  or  factories 
can  invade  his  neighborhood,  no  cheaper  houses  can 
come  in  to  spoil  his  street,  no  mansions  will  come  in  to 
inflate  his  rental,  no  high  apartment  will  be  allowed  to 
cut  off  his  light.  The  man  who  builds  a store  can 
make  sure  that  he  is  or  is  not  in  the  path  of  retail 
expansion,  according  to  his  preferences  and  ambitions. 

Thus  we  plan  to  avoid  congestion  and  the  scrap- 
ping of  buildings  before  their  time. 

The  Essential  Features  of  this 
Method 

The  essential  features  of  this  method  of 
procedure  are:  (i)  no  sale  of  land;  (2)  title  by 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


65 


occupancy  only,  through  a system  of  ground 
leases;  (3)  periodical  adjustment  of  values  of 
leases  to  keep  pace  with  demand  for  favorable 
sites  as  population  increases;  (4)  use  of  all 
rentals  for  the  maintenance  of  the  property 
and  community  improvement;  (5)  application 
of  the  principles  of  classification  of  land  for 
special  uses  and  of  building  restrictions  in  order 
to  maintain  the  character  of  the  different  sec- 
tions (business  and  residence)  of  the  com- 
munity. All  the  principles  here  involved,  it  is 
pointed  out,  are  those  familiar  to  real  estate 
operators,  except  that  perhaps  of  periodical 
valuation  of  leases.  This  principle,  however,  is 
now  being  suggested  in  the  water-power  leasing 
bill  before  Congress,  and  would  seem  to  present 
no  great  difficulties  of  application. 

The  Massachusetts  Homestead  Commission 
in  its  first  annual  report  of  1914  described 
methods  of  housing  work  which  would  embody 
the  principles  of  limited  dividend,  wholesale 
operations,  and  participation  by  the  resident. 
A special  committee  was  appointed  and  this 
committee  outlined  four  methods  of  procedure, 
each  method  embodying  one  or  more  of  these 
principles.  The  two  methods  proposed  by  the 
committee  which  embody  the  principles  of 
limited  dividend  or  collective  participation  by 
the  resident  or  both  may  be  here  described. 

Improved  Housing  Company 

The  limited  dividend  company,  here  termed 
as  noted,  has  been  known  in  this  country  and 
elsewhere  for  a number  of  years.  It  has  been 
the  practice  to  limit  dividends  to  5 per  cent  and 
to  distribute  any  surplus  for  community  de- 
velopment after  ordinary  maintenance  and 
depreciation  have  been  provided  against.  These 
companies  are  organized  as  ordinary  stock 
companies  except  in  the  matter  of  limiting 
dividends.  Speculative  profits  are  eliminated. 
Houses  are  usually  rented  only;  if  sold,  of 
course,  the  speculative  element  is  again  intro- 
duced. The  disadvantages  of  such  companies 
have  usually  been  that  they  have  had  to  buy 
land  already  at  a high  value  with  small  pros- 
pects of  sufficient  rents  to  leave  anything  over 
for  community  development ; neither  investment 


nor  speculative  capital  has  been  forthcoming 
because  of  a limitation  of  dividends;  and  the 
residents,  unless  they  were  stockholders,  have 
had  no  voice  in  the  affairs  of  the  company. 
There  has  been  lacking  interest  and  respon- 
sibility on  their  part. 

Co-Partnership  Homes  Company 

This  form  of  organization  is  an  application  of 
the  financial  features  of  the  English  Garden 
City  movement  to  America.  The  description  of 
this  form  of  organization  as  given  by  the 
Massachusetts  committee*  is  presented  in  full: 

The  object  of  this  company  would  be  to  promote  the 
co-operative  ownership  of  homes  by  a method  favorable 
alike  to  resident  and  investor.  Suitable  land,  accessible 
to  the  city,  would  be  acquired,  and  substantial,  san- 
itary, and  convenient  homes  would  be  built.  The 
district  would  be  planned  along  advanced  garden 
suburb  lines,  with  restriction  of  the  number  of  houses 
per  acre  and  provision  for  allotments  for  gardening, 
community  playgrounds  and  other  social  activities. 
Economics  could  be  effected  through  wholesale  opera- 
tions and  the  elimination  of  speculative  profit. 

A prospective  resident  would  be  approved  and 
would  take  up  at  least  2 shares  of  common  stock.  He 
w'ould  pay  a reasonable  rental  and  share  all  surplus 
profits.  Dividends  on  rent  and  common  stock  would 
be  credited  in  common  stock  until  the  value  of  20 
shares  is  reached,  outside  capital  being  gradually  re- 
tired. The  cost  of  repairs  would  be  deducted  from  the 
twelfth  month’s  rent  and  the  remainder  remitted,  thus 
further  encouraging  care  in  the  use  of  property.  The 
resident  could  invest  his  savings  in  the  company  stock 
at  5 per  cent.  Ownership  being  common,  not  individual, 
he  is  secure  from  loss  if  he  has  to  move  away. 

Capital  is  provided  at  a low  rate,  due  to  wholesale 
operations,  the  security  of  collective  ownership,  and 
the  low  rate  of  depreciation  resulting  from  the  great 
incentive  to  care  for  the  property.  Common  stock 
may  be  drawn  upon  for  arrears  or  repairs  due  to 
neglect. 

The  directors  would  ultimately  be  elected  by  com- 
mon stockholders,  but  preferred  stock  will  be  repre- 
sented until  common  stock  is  about  one-half  paid  up. 
Shares  should  be  500  common  and  1,500  preferred,  of 
$100  each.  Common  stock  should  be  j)aid  not  less  than 
10  per  cent  upon  allotment  and  installments  of  $1.00 
per  month  per  share.  Dividends  should  not  exceed 
5 per  cent.  Preferred  stock  should  be  paid  in  full, 
dividends  not  to  excede  5 per  cent,  cumulative.  It  may 
be  retired  at  par  on  a year’s  notice.  First  mortgages 
at  5 per  cent  will  be  placed  on  completed  houses  up  to 
60  per  cent  of  their  value.  A reserve  fund  would  be 
established  after  preferred  dividends  are  paid  at  the 

*Massachusetts:  First  annual  report  of  the  Homestead  Com- 
mission, 1914.  Boston,  1914,  pp.  23-24. 


66 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


rate  of  i per  cent  per  annum  until  it  ecpials  the  value 
of  the  stock.  With  2,000  shares  subscribed,  250  houses 
can  be  built.  The  committee  should  secure  ojitions 
and  call  a meetin"  when  about  one-fifth  is  subscribed. 

d'he  Massachusetts  committee  points  out  the  follow- 
ing advantages 

To  the  Resident: 

1.  He  gets  a home  at  a rental  not  higher  and  prob- 
ably less  than  elsewhere,  and  is  encouraged  to  take 
care  of  it  by  having  his  twelfth  month’s  rent  remitted, 
less  the  cost  of  repairs. 

2.  He  gets  a house  with  a garden  and  plenty  of 
fresh  air,  a house  well  built  and  sanitary,  with  some 
individuality,  in  which  he  can  take  pride.  He  lives  in  a 
neighborhood,  where  all  arc  ccjually  desirous  of  keeping 
up  the  j)roperty. 

3.  He  shares  in  the  economics  effected  through 
wholesale  buying  of  land  and  materials,  building 
houses  in  numbers,  efificient  management,  saving  in 
legal  e.xpenses,  and  the  elimination  of  speculative  profit. 

4.  He  can  invest  his  savings  in  the  company  at  5 
per  cent. 

5.  The  unearned  increment  goes  to  benefit  each 
resident  member,  for  which  increase  in  values  he  will 
get  either  a dividend  on  rent,  or  rent  below  market 
value. 

6.  He  secures  practically  all  the  surplus  profits  after 
fi.xed  charges  are  jraid  in  the  form  of  a dividend  on  his 
rent,  with  credit  in  common  stock  until  his  total  hold- 
ings equal  20  shares,  after  which  they  are  paid  in  cash. 

7.  He  lives  in  a social  atmosphere  with  new  and 
vital  interests  and  collective  friendships  in  the  com- 
munity. He  has  a mutual  interest  in  common  recreation 
facilities — playgrounds,  halls,  etc. 

8.  Ownership  is  common,  not  individual,  thus  pro- 
viding security  from  the  risk  of  loss  if  a resident  has  to 
leave,  as  he  has  no  liability  beyond  the  shares  he  holds, 
on  which  he  may  continue  to  receive  dividends  or 
which  he  may  dispose  of  (the  company  agreeing  to 
purchase  all  shares). 

9.  Capital  is  provided  at  a cheaper  rate  than  by 
any  other  sound  system,  due  largely  to  wholesale 
operations.  Outside  capital  is  gradually  retired  by 
savings. 

To  the  Investor: 

1.  The  company  by  collective  ownership  and  re- 
sponsibility offers  an  e.xceptional  security. 

2.  The  greater  the  surplus  the  less  the  risk,  and  it  is 
to  the  interest  of  the  residents,  who  receive  surplus 
profits,  to  take  care  of  the  property,  thereby  lessening 
depreciation,  to  find  tenants  for  empty  houses,  and  to 
pay  rent  punctually.  British  and  continental  experi- 
ence proves  that  this  individual  interest  equals  in 
value  I per  cent  per  annum  on  the  capital. 

3.  The  common  stock  forms  a fund  on  which  the 
company  can  draw  if  necessary  for  temporary  arrears  in 
rent,  or  repairs  due  to  neglect,  thus  eliminating  such 
losses  from  the  items  charged  against  preferred  stock, 
which  the  outside  investor  holds. 

The  financial  scheme  as  outlined  is  as  follows: 


1.  The  business  of  the  company  shall  be  carried  on 
by  a Board  of  Directors,  ultimately  to  be  elected  by 
the  holders  of  common  stock;  but  until  the  common 
stock  is  about  one-half  paid  in  the  holders  of  preferred 
stock  shall  be  entitled  to  an  equitable  representation 
(see  Memorandum). 

2.  The  authorized  capital  stock  of  the  company 
shall  be  $200,000.  The  value  of  each  share  shall  be 
$100.  There  shall  be  500  shares  of  common  stock  and 
1,500  shares  of  preferred  stock. 

3.  Common  stock  shall  be  paid  for  at  a rate  of  not 
less  than  10  per  cent  upon  allotment,  and  the  re- 
mainder in  installments  of  not  less  than  $1.00  per 
month  per  share,  until  fully  paid  up,  and  shall  be  en- 
titled to  dividends  not  to  exceed  5 per  cent,  payable 
quarterly,  after  all  other  obligations  of  the  company 
are  paid.  Dividends  shall  be  applied  as  payments  on 
stock  until  the  equivalent  of  20  shares  is  fully  paid 
up.  Not  more  than  20  shares  shall  be  held  by  any  one 
person.  Shares  shall  be  transferable,  subject  to  ap- 
proval by  the  directors  of  the  company. 

4.  Preferred  stock  shall  be  paid  in  full,  not  less  than 
10  per  cent  at  the  time  of  subscription,  and  30  per 
cent  succeeding  month  thereafter,  and  shall  be  en- 
titled to  dividends  as  stated  on  the  certificates,  but  in 
no  case  exceeding  5 per  cent  cumulative,  payable 
quarterly,  out  of  net  earnings.  Holdings  are  not  limited 
and  are  transferable.  Preferred  stock  may  be  retired 
in  any  part  at  par  on  a year’s  notice  by  the  directors 
of  the  company. 

5.  First  mortgages  at  5 per  cent  will  be  placed  by 
the  company  as  rapidly  as  houses  are  completed,  cov- 
ering 60  per  cent  of  the  value. 

6.  •A.fter  all  interest  on  mortgages,  etc.,  and  div- 
idends on  preferred  stock  are  paid,  the  company  shall 
establish  a reserve  fund  and  shall  pay  into  it  at  the 
rate  of  i per  cent  of  the  outstanding  capital  stock  per 
annum,  until  it  equals  the  value  of  the  stock. 

With  the  total  issue  of  2,000  shares  taken  up,  about 
250  houses  can  be  built.  As  soon  as  sufficient  sub- 
scriptions are  received  options  will  be  secured  on  suit- 
able estates. 

The  first  annual  meeting  will  be  called  within  one 
month  from  the  time  that  $15,000  on  stock  is  paid  in 
and  a total  of  $40,000  subscribed. 

The  company  will  make  it  practicable  for  a family 
in  moderate  circumstances  to  live  in  a healthful  home 
and  in  attractive  surroundings  at  the  least  cost  and 
to  maintain  it  in  part  through  the  use  and  sale  of 
garden  products  raised  on  adjacent  land.  The  under- 
signing committee  should  invite  subscriptions  to 
common  or  preferred  stock.  form  for  subscriptions 
should  accompany  the  prospectus. 

The  business  of  the  company  shall  be  carried  on  by 
a board  of  5 directors,  who  shall  be  elected  annually 
at  the  annual  meeting  by  the  holders  of  common  stock, 
each  holder  being  entitled  to  one  vote,  proxdded,  how- 
ever, that  no  holder  of  common  stock  shall  be  entitled 
to  a vote  until  he  has  fully  paid  for  one  share  of  common 
stock,  or  an  equivalent  value  on  2 or  more  shares;  and 
provided,  further,  that  if  at  any  annual  meeting  the 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


67 


total  amount  paid  in  on  common  stock  by  common 
stockholders  entitled  to  vote  is  less  than  five-thirtieths 
of  the  total  amount  paid  in  on  preferred  stock,  the 
holders  of  preferred  stock  shall  be  entitled  to  elect 
one  of  the  five  directors;  if  such  total  is  less  than  four- 
thirtieths,  they  shall  be  entitled  to  elect  2 directors,  and 
if  less  than  three-thirtieths,  three  directors;  if  less  than 
two-thirtieths,  four  directors,  and  if  less  than  one- 
thirtieth,  all  five  directors.  In  such  election  each 
holder  of  preferred  stock  shall  be  entitled  to  one  vote 
for  every  full  paid  share  of  preferred  stock  that  he 
holds. 

Government  Control  or  Ownership? 

It  is  quite  evident  that  the  government, 
municipal,  state,  or  federal,  may  either  sub- 
stitute itself  for  anyone  of  the  controlling 


organs  in  the  above  forms  of  housing  organiza- 
tion or  it  may  superimpose  itself  over  them 
as  a controlling  or  fostering  institution;  that 
is,  it  may  either  carry  on  housing  work  itself 
directly,  or  it  may  merely  assist  or  direct,  lend 
funds,  supervise  the  controlling  agencies  and 
create  the  necessary  rules  and  regulations  to 
secure  any  or  all  of  the  desired  ends  in  relation 
to  the  better  housing  of  the  workingman. 
Finally,  the  government  itself  may  merely 
initiate  the  housing  work  and  subsequently 
turn  its  conduct  over  to  a company  or  to  the 
community  to  continue  it  in  the  interests  of 
the  community. 


SECRETARY  LANE  APPEALS  FOR  BETTER  HOUSING  FOR 
ALIEN  WORKMEN 


But  all  the  patriotic  utterances  will  be  wasted  effort,  unless  at 
the  same  time  the  spirit  of  fair  play  is  observed  in  our  dealings  with 
the  alien  employee.  If  he  is  housed  in  slum  tenement  or  in  shanties, 
he  will  have  little  love  for  a land  that  treats  him  like  cattle. 

All  this  is  no  longer  theoretical,  nor  is  it  to  be  classed  as  philan- 
thropy, charity,  welfare  work,  or  some  effort  at  paternalism  on  the 
part  of  a kind-hearted  employer.  It  is  a straight  business  proposi- 
tion.— Frank.Iin  K.  Lane,  Secretary  of  the  Interior. 


68 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


Type  D-j 


Type  B-S 


Type  D-2 


Type  B-4 


House  Types  in  Eclipse  Park  Development 


ECLIPSE  PARK,  BELOIT,  WIS. 

GENERAL  INFORMATION,  DESCRIPTION  OF  HOUSES, 

WITH  TERMS  OF  SALE 


^^The  first  sure  symptom  of  a mind  in  health 
is  rest  of  heart — and  pleasure  felt  at  home.’’'' 

— Young. 


Location 

Accessibility.  Eclipse  Park  is  lo- 
cated in  the  northwest  section  of  the 
‘ city  of  Beloit,  directly  north  of,  and 
about  a two  minutes’  walk  from,  the  plant  of 
Eairbanks,  Morse  & Co.  The  main  entrance  to 
the  tract  lies  on  Park  venue,  opposite  the 


block  bounded  by  Washburne  and  Earwell 
streets. 

The  business  center  of  Beloit,  to  the  south, 
is  easily  reached  by  trolley,  automobile,  or 
walking.  Park  Avenue  borders  the  property 
on  the  east  and  is  the  chief  thoroughfare  con- 
nection with  the  downtown  section.  River 


V I 


-GtMRAl  PtAN  - 
tCIIPSt  PARK.  DtVttOPMtNT 

BUOn  WISCONSIN  - 

&1.0  U POS  T f.  SONS 
ARCMITVCTS  (f  rOWN  Rl  ANNIR.S 

lOI  PARI.  AMStl  NIAV  TORA  On* 


Plot  Plan  of  Eclipse  Park,  Beloit,  II’ A.,  a Development  by  Fairbanks,  Morse  cr  Co. 
George  B.  Post  ^ Sons,  Architects 


fiO 


70 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


Type  C-y 


TlPiT  Tlco-j  Pl4M- 


Dihihg  Coon_ 


' ■'Hi! 

,_btP  Poon-jr;Q-l 

Poon  l| 

|l 

"] 

HkiiJl  - 

- 

.bit)  Poon 

brn  Poon 

1,  Posen  lioop  II 

i 

^ u : 

OccoriD  Lcdp  Pum- 


Type  D-4 


-5cC0ND  fLOOCL-p 


P k.AN 


Superintendent’ s House  Type  B-g 

House  Types  in  Eclipse  Park  Development 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


71 


Road,  parallel  to  Park  Avenue,  forms  the 
western  boundary  of  the  tract  and  affords  an 
alternative  route  of  approach  for  pleasure 
vehicles. 

The  belt-line  trolley,  how  running  from  the 
downtown  section  northward  along  Park 
Avenue,  is  to  be  extended  through  the  heart 
of  the  Eclipse  Park  property. 

An  attractive  group  of  stores,  a motion- 
picture  theater,  and  other  buildings  for  com- 
munity purposes  are  to  be  built  at  the  entrance 
of  the  property,  and  will  make  living  in  Eclipse 
Park  even  more  convenient  and  attractive. 

Residents  in  Eclipse  Park  will  enjoy  all  of 
the  advantages  of  a self-contained  community, 
with  the  additional  advantage  of  easy  access  to 
the  industrial  and  business  centers  of  Beloit. 

Natural  Advantages.  ' Erom  the  standpoint 
of  healthfulness  and  natural  advantages,  the 
site  of  Eclipse  Park  is  unusual. 

Occupying  a fine  site  overlooking  Rock 
River,  from  which  it  is  separated  only  by  a 
broad  river-bank  road,  the  site  is  possessed  of 
a variety  and  charm  which  make  it  a nearly 
ideal  place  of  residence.  The  area  now  in 
course  of  development  covers  about  53  acres 
and  is  all  well  drained.  It  stretches  for  a third 
of  a mile  along  the  river-front  and  inland  to  a 
still  greater  depth. 

The  topography  is  partly  level,  partly  un- 
dulating. About  two-thirds  of  the  total  area, 
mainly  that  portion  lying  farthest  from  the 
river,  is  quite  level.  The  remainder,  along  the 
river-front,  rises  somewhat  abruptly,  with  un- 
even or  rolling  surface,  sloping  back  to  the  level 
section.  This  diversity  in  contour  is  one  of  the 
principal  charms  of  the  property. 

All  that  portion  of  the  property  fronting  the 
river,  about  a third  of  the  whole,  is  heavily 
wooded.  The  remarkable  beauty  of  the  tree- 
growth  here  is  one  of  the  most  striking  features 
of  the  tract,  and,  with  the  river-frontage,  is  one 
of  the  reasons  why  Eclipse  Home  Makers,  Inc., 
have  set  aside  a 6-acre  park  in  this  section. 

General  Plan  of  Development 

Architects  and  Town  Planners. — The  plan- 
ning of  Ecli])se  Park  and  the  layout  of  streets. 


lots,  open  spaces,  and  sites  for  community  uses, 
as  also  the  design  of  the  houses,  is  in  charge 
of  Geo.  B.  Post  & Sons,  architects  and  town 
planners,  of  New  York  City. 

The  Street-Plan. — In  laying  out  the  streets  in 
Eclipse  Park,  the  designers  have  avoided  the 
monotonous  checkerboard  system,  so-called, 
which  is  common  in  America  — that  is,  the 
system  in  which  all  streets  intersect  at  right 
angles  and  have  a uniform  width  and  stan- 
dardized paved  roadway.  The  distances  trav- 
eled in  this  system  are  usually  the  longest  and 
most  indirect.  Any  proper  centralization  of  the 
social  or  business  life  of  the  community  is 
difficult  to  obtain.  The  checkerboard  plan 
imparts  a dull  uniformity  to  the  appearance 
of  all  the  streets.  But  its  most  objectionable 
feature  is  that  it  is  wasteful  of  land  and  of 
ex]5enditure  for  street  construction  and  paving, 
and  so  increases  the  amount  which  the  home- 
buyer  must  pay  for  his  lot. 

The  most  important  single  feature  of  the 
street-plan  is  a broad,  diagonal  thoroughfare, 
Morse  Avenue,  80  feet  wide,  extending  from  the 
entrance  to  the  property  on  Park  Avenue 
(opposite  Washburne  Street),  northwesterly  to 
an  intersection  with  Henry  Avenue.  Through 
this  broad  boulevard,  residents  in  Eclipse  Park 
will  have  direct  access  to  all  parts  of  the 
development  by  the  shortest  route.  The  single- 
track  belt-line  trolley  on  Park  Avenue  will  be 
extended  through  the  property  and  along  this 
avenue,  so  that  transit  service  at  the  most 
convenient  point  will  be  available  to  all  the 
residents  of  the  Park.  The  avenue  will  be  laid 
out  with  two  roadways,  each  18  feet  wide,  on 
either  side  of  a central  grass-strip  20  feet  wide, 
in  wdiich  the  trolley  tracks  will  be  laid.  Ample 
sidewalks  and  broad  grass-strips  next  to  the 
trafficways  will  occupy  the  remainder  of  the 
width  of  the  thoroughfare. 

M inor  Streets. — One  of  the  most  important 
items  of  expense  in  the  cost  of  the  home  is  the 
cost  of  land  for  streets  and  for  street  con- 
struction, paving,  and  underground  utilities. 
In  most  suburban  residential  pro]:»erties,  this 
charge  amounts  to  more  than  the  original  cost 
of  the  lot  on  which  the  house  stands.  If  these 


72 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


Type  C-Q 


Type  D-8 


House  Types  in  Eclipse  Park  Development 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


73 


improvements  are  not  provided  and  paid  for 
at  the  time  of  purchase  of  lot,  they  are  installed 
later  by  the  city  and  paid  for  by  the  owner  in 
the  form  of  assessments.  In  Eclipse  Park, 
every  desirable  improvement  of  the  property, 
including  paving,  curbing,  sidewalks,  planting, 
sewers,  gas,  water,  and  electricity,  is  pro- 
vided by  the  company  in  advance,  or  will  be 
provided  under  the  terms  of  the  contract  of 
purchase. 

The  company  aims  to  offer  only  the  most 
desirable  and  attractive  properties,  complete 
in  every  respect,  at  the  lowest  cost.  These  aims 
have  guided  the  landscape  designers  through- 
out. Every  known  and  well-tried  expedient 
has  been  adopted  to  bring  the  land-development 
cost,  as  it  is  termed,  to  the  lowest  figure,  and 
at  the  same  time  to  give  to  the  entire  property 
and  to  each  of  the  lots  the  maximum  of  charm, 
picturesqueness,  accessibility,  sunlight,  airiness, 
and  sanitary  convenience. 

Street  Widths  and  Paving  — All  streets,  ex- 
cept Morse  Avenue,  have  been  given  a total 
width  of  50  feet.  Vehicle  roadways  on  these 


streets  will  be  laid  out  18  feet  wide  and  paved 
with  concrete.  On  either  side  of  the  roadway, 
a grass-strip  4 feet  wide,  a concrete  sidewalk  4 
feet  wide,  and  then  a grass-strip  8 feet  wide, 
next  to  the  lot-line,  will  be  installed.  The  road- 
way provided  is  ample  for  residential  streets 
where  the  vehicular  traffic  thereon  will  serve 
only  the  abutting  houses.  Morse  Avenue  will 
provide  ample  accommodation  for  all  through 
traffic. 

Aside  from  the  quietness  and  intimacy  and 
safety  of  these  residential  side  streets,  with 
their  narrow  roadway,  uninviting  to  traffic, 
there  is  a saving  in  paving  and  other  develop- 
ment costs  which  serves  to  reduce  further  the 
cost  of  properties  to  purchasers  in  Eclipse 
Park  by  just  that  amount. 

Setbacks. — To  give  further  assurance  of  the 
maintenance  of  light,  air,  privacy,  and  pic- 
turesque effects  in  and  about  all  properties 
purchased,  all  dwellings  are  set  back  from  the 
lot-line  at  least  20  feet  — in  some  cases  more  — 
and  a restriction  inserted  in  the  deed  insuring 
the  permanency  of  this  provision. 


Type  D-5 


Type  A-6 


74 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


Curoiiiii[  Roads. — As  a measure  designed  fur- 
ther to  reduce  the  cost  of  develoj)ment,  and 
at  the  same  time  to  increase  the  landscape  and 
architectural  interest,  the  streets  in  Eclipse 
Park  conform  to  the  lines  of  least  resistance 
and  follow  the  easiest  and  most  natural  grades. 
The  cost  of  land  de\'elopment  under  this  sys- 
tem is  ai)]rrecial)ly  less  than  that  incurred  in  the 
usual  method  of  land  subdixasion  with  right- 
angled  streets,  where  the  cost  of  cutting  hills 
and  filling  hollows  in  rolling  land  is  one  of  the 
heaviest  items  of  expense.  The  gain  under  the 
system  adopted  in  Eclipse  Park  is  not  only 
measurable  in  dollars  subtracted  from  the 
})rice  asked  for  property  in  the  Park,  but  in  the 
greatly  increased  desirability  of  the  lots  where 
the  changing  curvature  of  the  roads  and  the 
xairiations  in  the  elevations  and  settings  of  the 
houses  introduce  ever-changing  elements  of 
interest  as  one  traverses  the  streets,  not  at  all 
like  the  hard  lines  and  painful  monotony  of 
the  right-angled  street  subdix’ision. 

Community  Features 

Eiifraiicc  Square  and  Store  Group. — One  of 
the  most  striking  features  of  the  plan  of 
Eclipse  Park  -and  what  is  destined,  on  com- 
pletion, to  become  an  imjxortant  center  in  the 
life  of  residents  of  the  Park  — is  the  Entrance 
Square,  with  its  group  of  attractive  stores  and 
its  motion-picture  theater.  This  is  located  just 
west  of  Park  Avenue,  near  its  intersection  with 
W'ashburne  Street.  As  planned,  it  is  of  irregu- 
lar shape,  approximately  260  feet  wide  by  150 
feet  deep,  opening  on  Park  Avenue,  and 
includes  a small  park,  145  feet  by  115  feet, 
with  fountain. 

Ox’erlooking  the  Square,  and  around  three  of 
its  sides,  a group  of  two-story  buildings  of 
charming  design  is  to  be  erected.  The  first 
story  of  this  grou])  will  be  treated  as  an  arcade, 
extending  continuoush^  around  the  enclosed 
portions  of  the  Square.  This  arcade  will  add 
greatly  to  the  appearance  of  the  Square,  and 
will  provide  shelter  in  bad  weather. 

In  addition  to  accommodations  for  stores 
of  all  kinds,  and  a motion-picture  theater,  the 
buildings  here  will  provide  attractive  quarters 


lor  a branch  library,  rooms  for  civic  organiza- 
tions, clubs,  and  the  like.  The  second  story 
will  be  used  for  apartments,  offices,  and  some 
of  the  community  activities  mentioned. 

In  addition  to  the  above-mentioned  uses, 
the  Square  serves  as  the  focus  and  distributor 
of  all  traffic  in  the  Park.  Park  Avenue,  leading 
south  to  the  city,  Acorn  Drive,  leading  west  to 
the  river,  and,  particularly,  Morse  Avenue, 
leading  northwest  through  the  Park,  focus  all 
vehicles  and  pedestrians  going  in  or  out  of  the 
Park  on  the  broad  spaces  of  the  Entrance 
Square.  Eurther,  the  factory  yards  of  Eair- 
banks,  Morse  & Co.,  lying  southwest  about  200 
yards,  are  connected  directly  with  the  Square 
by  means  of  a walk,  entering  the  Square 
through  arched  ways  in  the  southwest  side. 
Part  of  the  area  between  the  entrance  square 
and  the  factory  yards  is  given  over  to  an 
athletic  field  for  the  use  of  employees  of  Eair- 
banks,  Morse  & Co. 

With  the  general  scheme  as  outlined  put 
into  execution,  a visitor,  entering  the  Scjuare 
from  Park  Avenue,  will  find  himself  in  delight- 
fully quaint  and  restful  surroundings.  He  will 
see  directly  ahead  IMorse  Avenue,  80  feet  wide, 
and  its  broad  grass-strips,  trees,  and  shrubs, 
leading  straight  away  for  a third  of  a mile  and 
focusing  on  a site  reserved  for  a school,  just  off 
Henry  Avenue.  Acorn  Drive,  resembling  a 
parkway  more  than  a street,  is  seen  curving  in 
its  course  to  the  wooded  Community  Park  on 
the  river-front. 

Altogether,  the  impression  to  be  gained  is 
one  of  simple  dignity  imparted  by  a xvell- 
ordered  arrangement  of  the  various  open  spaces 
and  buildings,  and  enlivened  by  the  skillful 
distribution  of  architectural  motifs. 

Community  Park. — As  mentioned  early  in 
this  outline.  Eclipse  Home  Makers,  Inc.,  have 
set  aside  a little  over  six  acres  as  a park  for 
the  use  and  enjox’ment  of  residents  of  Eclipse 
Park.  This  acreage  lies  in  the  southwest  corner 
of  the  property,  has  a frontage  on  Rock  River 
of  about  370  feet,  and  extends  inland  about  900 
feet.  For  many  years  employees  of  Fairbanks, 
Morse  & Co.  have  assembled  here  as  a body  to 
take  part  in  holiday  outings.  It  includes  the 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


75 


most  beautiful  portions  of  the  wooded  section 
along  the  river  and  makes  an  ideal  outdoor 
site  for  various  leisure-time  pursuits  of  children 
and  adults.  A feature  of  the  Park  landscape  is 
a deep  ravine,  beautifully  wooded,  opening  out 
into  a natural  amphitheater,  with  a water- 
pool,  setting  off  the  variety  of  form  and  color 
seen  in  the  trees  and  shrubs. 

Church  and  School  Sites. — Sites  for  public  or 
semi-public  buildings  are  reserved  at  the  three 
most  prominent  street  intersections  on  the 
entire  property.  The  first  of  these  is  at  the 
intersection  of  Morse  Avenue  with  Hemlock 
Street,  and  has  an  area  of  20,000  square  feet; 
the  second  is  at  the  intersection  of  Morse 
Avenue  with  Hillside  Drive,  and  balances  the 
first.  It  also  has  an  area  of  20,000  square  feet. 
These  two  sites  afford  striking  locations  for 
buildings  which  will  be  seen  at  once  by  every- 
one passing  through  the  Entrance  Square. 
The  third  reservation  is  the  quarter-circle  on  the 
axis  of  Morse  Avenue,  at  its  northwest  end,  and 
is  bounded  by  Henry  i\venue.  Walnut  Street 
and  Morse  Avenue.  It  has  an  area  of  20,000 
square  feet. 

Planting 

The  selling  price  of  properties  in  Eclipse 
Park  includes  sewer,  gas,  electricity  and  water- 
supply  connections,  street-paving,  curbs,  side- 
walks and  planting. 

As  many  houses  are  sold  without  provision 
for  this  important  item  of  planting,  the  buyer 
who  has  had  experience  in  owning  or  renting  a 
house  will  appreciate  the  value  of  this  provision. 
The  front,  rear,  and  side  yards  of  all  houses 
in  Eclipse  Park  will  be  carefully  graded  and 
planted  with  lawn  seed;  hedges  from  selected 
nursery  stock  will  be  set  along  the  front,  rear, 
and  side  lines  of  all  lots;  and  attractive  shrubs 
of  well-matured  stock  will  be  planted  in  the 
lots  under  the  supervision  of  the  landscape 
architects. 

All  unpaved  areas  within  the  street-lines  will 
be  graded  and  seeded,  and  trees  planted  at 
appropriate  intervals  on  both  sides  of  every 
street  in  the  property. 


Lot-Sizes 

Effort  has  been  made  to  realize  the  ideal  in 
the  matter  of  lot-sizes  and  types  of  houses^ 
while  maintaining  a selling  price  for  house  and 
lot  within  the  means  of  those  whom  it  is  de- 
sired to  accommodate.  The  free-standing, 
detached  house,  open  on  all  sides,  is  today 
recognized  as  the  ideal  accommodation  for  the 
man  with  a family.  It  affords  the  maximum  of 
light,  air,  privacy  and  convenience.  Eclipse 
Park  houses  offered  for  sale  are  all  of  this  type 
and  have  ample  front,  rear,  and  side  yards. 

The  following  general  arrangement  of  houses 
and  lots  has  been  adopted: 

The  smallest  houses  with  four  rooms  (“A” 
Type)  are  located  on  lots  with  40  feet  frontage 
and  80  feet  depth. 

The  next  largest,  or  five-room  houses  (“B” 
Type)  are  located  on  lots  with  45  feet  frontage 
and  90  feet  depth. 

The  six-room  houses  (“C”  Type)  are  located 
on  lots  with  50  feet  frontage  and  100  feet  depth. 

The  seven-room  houses  (“D”  Type)  are 
located  on  lots  with  55  feet  frontage  and  95 
feet  depth,  and  also  on  lots  with  50  feet  frontage 
and  100  feet  depth. 

The  eight-room  houses  (“E”  Type)  are 
located  on  lots  with  a frontage  of  from  50  to  55 
feet  and  a depth  of  from  100  to  no  feet. 

A few  houses  with  seven  to  eight  rooms  (“  E ’ ’ 
Type),  with  exceptional  interior  accommoda- 
tions, are  located  on  lots  with  a frontage  of 
from  60  to  75  feet  and  a depth  of  from  100  to 
1 10  feet. 

Some  of  the  smaller  houses  of  the  five-  and 
six-room  type  are  located  on  lots  varying  in 
size  from  the  above  schedule,  but  in  no  case 
on  lots  less  than  40  by  80  feet. 

The  houses  are  all  set  back  from  the  front 
lot-line  for  a distance  of  from  20  to  28  feet. 
A few  of  the  larger  houses  are  set  back  to  a 
greater  depth. 

Between  houses  on  adjoining  lots  a s]mce  of 
at  least  20  feet  is  maintained.  In  most  in- 
stances, this  free  s])ace  is  25  feet  or  more. 


76 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


The  Houses  in  Eclipse  Park 

Next  to  the  ])rol)lem  of  the  location  of  the 
house,  the  most  imj^ortant  matter  in  the  mind 
of  the  prosi^ective  home-buyer,  is  its  interior 
arrangement  and  practical  convenience.  In 
Ecli])se  Park  homes,  the  architects  have  used 
the  best  American  standards  with  respect  to 
the  number  and  arrangement  of  rooms. 

All  the  houses  have  concrete  cellars,  with 
7-foot  clear  headroom,  under  the  entire  first 
floor.  The  cellar  is  equipped  with  a hot-air 
furnace,  with  registers  to  all  rooms.  The  fur- 
nace has  a hot-water  back,  connected  with  a 
hot-water  boiler,  for  winter  use.  Connections 
are  provided  for  a gas  heater  to  be  used  with 
the  hot-water  boiler  in  warm  weather. 

A pair  of  washtubs  is  provided  in  the  cellar 
of  the  largest  houses,  that  is,  the  “D,”  “E” 
and  “E”  ty])es  of  seven,  eight,  and  nine  rooms. 

First  Floor.-  All  of  the  houses  have  a sepa- 
rate living  room,  dining  room,  and  kitchen  on 
the  first  floor,  all  of  comfortable  sizes,  with  a 
few  exceptions  in  the  case  of  the  “A”  t}q)e, 
with  four  rooms,  where  the  dining  room  and 
kitchen  are  combined. 

The  living  rooms  in  the  four-,  five-  and  six- 
room  houses  have  an  area  of  150  to  190  square 
feet.  In  the  seven-  and  eight-room  houses,  the 
living  room  has  an  area  of  200  to  2 10  square  feet. 

The  dining  room  runs  from  100  square  feet 
in  the  smallest  houses  to  140  or  more  feet  in  the 
largest  houses. 

The  kitchens  are  one  of  the  most  appealing 
features  of  properties  in  Eclipse  Park.  No  kitch- 
en has  an  area  of  less  than  90  square  feet,  and 
some  have  as  much  as  115  square  feet  floor  area. 
They  are  equipped  with  a modern  sink  and 
drain-board,  cabinet,  and  gas  range.  A unique 
feature  is  the  commodious  supply  closet,  with 
six  tiers  of  shelves,  giving  ample  space  for  stor- 
age of  supplies  and  kitchen  utensils. 

In  type  “A”  houses  (four  rooms)  in  which  the 
dining  room  and  kitchen  are  combined  in  one 
large  room,  as  mentioned  above,  buffet  corner 
seats  are  built  in.  In  others,  a dining  room 
with  an  alcove  kitchenette,  6 feet  by  10  feet, 
has  been  constructed.  The  largest  houses  have 
a space  in  the  form  of  an  alcove,  or  closet. 


located  at  the  entrance  vestibule  to  the  kitchen, 
to  accommodate  a refrigerator. 

i\ll  rooms  on  the  first  floor  have  ceiling- 
heights  of  8 feet  4 inches  clear. 

Special  study  has  been  given  to  the  most 
economic,  convenient,  and  sanitary  type  of 
bedroom.  Such  rooms  have  a minimum  floor 
area  of  no  scjuare  feet,  and  range  from  this  up 
to  as  much  as  150  scjuare  feet. 

All  bedrooms  have  two  windows,  each 
arranged  on  o])posite  walls,  to  give  proper  cross- 
ventilation. 

Every  bedroom  has  a clothes-closet,  and  on 
each  bedroom  floor  there  is,  in  addition,  a linen- 
closet,  which  is  in  itself  a feature  that  will 
appeal  to  the  careful  housewife.  The  ceiling- 
heights  on  the  second  floor  are  7 feet  9 inches 
clear.  Wdiere  a roof  causes  part  of  a ceiling  to 
slope,  there  is  at  least  5 feet  height  at  the 
lowest  point. 


TYPE  A*  TYPE  A*  TYPE  A’ A*  TYPED* 

Window  Shutter  Designs,  Eclipse  Park 


All  houses  are  equipped  with  modern  bath 
rooms,  complete  in  every  respect,  including  a 
porcelain  tub,  wash  basin,  and  sanitary  fixtures. 
Lighting  is  by  electricity  throughout. 

The  houses  are  of  frame  construction,  with 
clapboard,  shingle,  and  stucco  exterior  walls. 

How  Eclipse  Park  Homes  Are 
Purchased 

Terms  of  Sale.—  In  Beloit,  as  in  other  cities 
of  America,  the  problem  of  providing  attrac- 


77 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


live,  comfortable,  and  accessible  homes  within 
the  means  of  the  average  man  is  extremely 
difficult  of  solution.  There  has  been  a much 
greater  demand  for  good  homes  at  a moderate 
price  than  builders  have  been  able  to  supply. 
The  shortage  of  homes  of  this  type  has  been 
due  to  a number  of  causes. 

Eclipse  Home  Makers,  Inc.,  have  solved  the 
problem  of  providing  good  and  attractive  homes 
at  low  prices  by  purchasing  materials  for  a 
large  number  of  houses  at  one  time.  With  the 
assistance  of  their  architects,  they  have  made  a 
thoroughgoing  study  of  standard  building 
materials  and  labor  methods,  with  a view  to 
getting  the  best  possible  results  at  the  least 
outlay.  Much  ingenuity  has  been  shown  in 
design  and  construction  methods,  both  in 
laying  out  the  property  and  in  drafting  plans 
for  the  individual  houses.  In  this  way  they 
have  been  able  to  secure  the  maximum  con- 
venience and  attractiveness  in  the  accom- 
modations offered  for  the  minimum  price. 

The  Selling  Plan 

A simple  and  reasonable  selling-plan  has 
been  devised.  The  plan  of  sale  calls  for  a first 
payment  of  lo  per  cent  down  on  the  price  of 
the  house  and  lot.  With  this  deposit,  a deed 
to  the  property  will  be  given  the  purchaser. 

A first  mortgage,  equal  to  50  per  cent  of  the 
selling-price,  payable  in  five  years,  at  6 per  cent 
interest,  is  required.  The  balance  remaining 
of  the  purchase  price,  after  the  initial  payment 
and  the  first  mortgage  have  been  deducted, 
will  be  covered  by  a second  mortgage  payable 
in  monthly  installments. 

Every  purchaser  in  Eclipse  Park  will  be 
required  to  carry  fire  and  tornado  insurance  on 
his  house,  the  cost  of  which  will  be  payable  with 
the  regular  monthly  installments  on  the  pur- 
chase price. 

Eor  protection  of  the  home-buyer  and  his 
family  while  the  monthly  installments  are  being 
paid,  it  is  recommended  that  the  purchaser 
take  diminishing  life  insurance  with  one  of  the 


large  companies  who  specialize  on  industrial 
insurance.  These  small  monthly  payments 
will,  in  the  event  of  the  death  of  the  head  of 
the  family,  cancel  the  contract  or  such  parts  of 
it  as  are  covered  by  the  amount  of  the  insurance 
taken. 

Further,  in  accordance  with  the  best  practice 
in  similar  developments  in  America,  certain 
restrictions  have  been  placed  on  the  property 
to  protect  each  purchaser  in  his  right  to  enjoy 
the  comforts  and  conveniences  which  he  ac- 


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TYPE  A®  SECTION 


TYPE  A'° 


SECTION 


S-0 


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TYPE  D® 


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SECTION 


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SECTION 


Window  Boxes,  Eclipse  Park 


quires  on  becoming  a resident  in  Eclipse  Park. 
Such  restrictions  are  made  a part  of  the  deed 
to  the  property.  Experience  has  shown  that 
values  are  enhanced  by  such  restrictions  and 
by  the  knowledge  that  agreeable  conditions  are 
to  be  permanent  and  that  no  property-owner 
will  be  permitted  to  use  his  property  in  a way 
that  will  annoy  his  neighbors. 


78 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


-Im;  K.~-SI/(nc’ii!t;  Houses  Under  Constnictiun  in  Executive  Kcsidenlial  Section 


Sectiona!  Houses  Piled  on  the  Ground  Ready  for  Erection 


Sectional  Houses  in  Course  of  Construction 

Nitro,  West  Virginia 


NITRO,  WEST  VIRGINIA 

U.  S.  Government  Explosives  Plant  “C” 

GRAHAM,  ANDERSON,  PROBST  & WHITE 

Designing  Engineers 


NITRO,  a city  built  in  connection  with 
one  of  the  largest  explosives  plants 
erected  by  our  Government  during  the 
recent  war,  is  situated  in  the  valley  of  the 
Kenawha  River,  in  the  northwestern  portion 
of  West  Virginia. 

This  transitory  city  — transitory  in  the  sense 
that  it  is  a part  of  an  emergency  plant  whose 
immediate  usefulness  terminated  at  the  close 
of  the  war  — has  provided  housing  facilities 
for  the  workmen  employed  at  the  plant  and 
their  families,  an  estimated  population  of 
twenty  thousand. 

In  providing  these  housing  accommodations 
the  well  recognized  facts  were  considered  that 
the  best  workmen  can  only  be  obtained  and 
held  where  housing  is  not  only  comfortable  but 
attractive  and  designed  to  fit  the  special  needs 
of  each  class. 

With  this  in  view,  the  employees  have  been 
placed  in  separate  areas  or  sections  as  follows, 
giving  in  detail  the  type  of  workmen  and  num- 
ber of  buildings,  with  an  estimated  number  of 
inhabitants  housed  in  each  particular  type  of 
dwelling. 

Area  “A” 

In  this  area  houses  have  been  provided  for 
negroes  and  unskilled  foreign-born  labor, 
divided  in  two  sections,  according  to  race. 

The  dwellings  for  negro  labor  constitute  two 
hundred  and  fifty  four-room  bungalows,  built 
for  an  estimated  total  of  2,000  inhabitants.  A 
particular  point  to  be  brought  out  relative  to 
these  houses  is  that  they  are  convertible  to 
a two-family  house  of  two  rooms  each,  with  a 
shower  bath  and  toilet  provided  in  each  portion. 

For  the  foreign-born  labor,  there  has  been 
constructed  one  hundred  four-room  bungalows. 


each  house  complete  in  itself,  with  shower  bath 
and  toilet.  These  houses  will  house  an  estimated 
total  of  685  inhabitants. 

Provision  has  also  been  made  for  single  men 
or  workmen  without  families,  and  for  these  men 
barracks  buildings  and  bunk  houses  have  been 
built.  The  barracks  (twenty-seven  in  number) 
will  house  200  men  each,  or  a total  of  5,400 
men,  and  the  twenty  bunk  houses  will  care  for 
forty-eight  men  each,  or  a total  of  960  men. 
Each  bunk  house  and  barracks  building  has  its 
own  particular  lavatory  building  in  which  is 
provided  a toilet  room,  wash  room  and  shower 
bath  room. 

Recreation  features  have  been  pro\dded  in 
two  Young  Men’s  Christian  Association  build- 
ings — one  for  negroes  and  the  other  for  white 
laborers.  These  buildings  contain  assembly 
halls,  where  meetings  and  lectures  may  be 
held;  lounging  rooms,  billiard  rooms,  bowling 
alleys  and  reading  rooms.  In  conjunction  with 
one  of  these  buildings,  there  has  been  built  a 
gymnasium  building,  which  has  a gymnasium 
floor  100  feet  long  and  50  feet  wide,  with  run- 
ning track,  swimming  pool,  shower  baths, 
locker  rooms,  and  physical  instructors’  offices. 
At  this  building  will  be  given  thorough  courses 
in  athletic  training. 

The  cold  storage  buildings,  warehouses  and 
freight  houses  are  located  in  this  area.  The  cold 
storage  buildings  are  designed  to  store  all  the 
food  stuffs,  dairy  products,  etc.,  for  the  entire 
city. 

Store  buildings  are  provided  for  the  every- 
day needs  of  the  people  in  this  area. 

Area  “P” 

This  group  of  bungalows  has  been  assigned 
to  building  foremen,  skilled  mechanics  and 


79 


80 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


Street  Showing  Houses  Completed 


Walls  Erected  on  Sectional  Houses 


Sectional  House  Erected 


Nitro,  West  Virginia 


81 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


unskilled  white  American  laborers.  One  hun- 
dred six-room  bungalows  have  been  built  for 
building  foremen,  estimated  to  provide  housing 
for  800  inhabitants.  Skilled  mechanics  have 
ninety  bungalows  built  for  them  with  an  esti- 
mated number  of  700  inhabitants;  also  two 
hundred  and  fifty  four-room  bungalows  to  ac- 
commodate 1,500  inhabitants.  For  the  un- 
skilled white  American  laborers  there  have 
been  provided  one  hundred  and  fifty  four- 
room  houses  for  900  inhabitants  and  one  hun- 
dred five-room  houses  for  700  inhabitants. 
There  also  is  provided  a school  building  for 
the  lower  grades  with  a kindergarten,  and 
there  is  a general  store  building  for  merchan- 
dise in  this  area. 

Area“S” 

Housing  in  this  area  provides  for  the  mechan- 
ical foremen  and  skilled  mechanics.  The  me- 
chanical foremen  have  been  allotted  to  forty 
six-room  houses  which  have  been  built  for  them 
and  estimated  to  provide  for  220  inhabitants. 
Four  hundred  bungalows  have  been  built  for 
skilled  mechanics ; also  two  hundred  and  fifty  of 
another  type  for  the  same  class  of  workmen.  All 
of  the  above  are  five  rooms,  and  the  six  hun- 
dred and  fifty  houses  are  estimated  to  house 
4,550  inhabitants. 

Local  storerooms  have  been  provided  for  food 
stuffs,  clothing,  shoes,  tailor  and  barber  shops. 

The  General  Hospital  is  located  in  this  area. 
The  group  of  buildings  (fourteen  in  number), 
covers  a ground  area  of  fourteen  acres.  These 
buildings  have  all  the  equipment  of  a modern 
hospital  fitted  to  treat  all  diseases.  The  ward 
buildings  provide  for  450  beds.  The  staff  per- 
sonnel consists  of  twenty-nine  medical  officers 
and  sixty  nurses. 

School  buildings  similar  to  those  in  Area  “P ” 
for  the  lower  grades  are  provided  for,  and  in 
addition  there  are  recreational  fields  for  out- 
door sports. 

Area“R” 

As  this  area  is  most  centrally  located  to  all 
groups,  in  it  are  located  the  business  and  public 
buildings.  These  buildings  include  a post 


office,  a town  hall  — in  which  are  located  the 
police  and  fire  departments  headquarters  — a 
court  room,  and  administration  offices  for  the 
city’s  government;  a medical  dispensary  with 
offices  for  physicians  and  dentists,  a two-story 
department  store  in  which  all  lines  of  merchan- 
dise are  handled,  and  a store,  office,  and  lodge 
hall  building.  One  of  these  stores  will  be  a 
complete  grocery  and  meat  market  with  a 
large  wareroom.  The  other  store  is  occupied  by 
a twelve-chair  barber  shop.  Above  these  stores 
is  a lodge  hall  which  will  seat  700  persons.  In 
addition  there  are  several  suites  of  offices  in 
this  building,  a large  drug  store  and  haber- 
dashery. A bank  building  with  stores  is  being 
built.  Some  housing  is  provided  in  this  cen- 
ter, and  these  buildings  are  as  follows:  Two 
bachelor  apartment  buildings  of  forty-eight 
rooms  each,  one  women’s  lodge  building  of 
sixty  rooms,  one  women’s  and  one  men’s  club 
building  of  sixty  rooms  each,  a hotel  of  ninety- 
eight  rooms,  and  a Young  Women’s  Christian 
Association  building,  which  has  seventy-five 
sleeping  rooms.  In  connection  with  all  these 
buildings,  restaurants  are  located  either  in  the 
buildings  or  adjoining. 

For  recreation  there  has  been  provided  a 
Young  Men’s  Christian  Association  building 
with  an  auditorium  to  seat  twenty-five  hundred. 
The  remainder  of  this  building  is  along  similar 
lines  to  the  one  outlined  in  Area  “A,”  except  on 
a much  larger  scale.  This  building  also  will  have 
a gymnasium  and  swimming  pool  in  connection. 

The  women  are  provided  with  a recreational 
building  in  which  a combination  auditorium 
and  gymnasium  is  built.  This  auditorium  will 
seat  600  persons  and  has  locker  rooms  and 
shower  baths.  On  the  second  floor  are  club 
rooms  for  social  work,  instruction  meetings, 
etc.  A motion  picture  theater  seating  500  per- 
sons is  built,  in  which  regular  exhibitions  will 
be  conducted.  All  assembly  rooms  have  been 
provided  with  motion  picture  operating  rooms, 
so  that  this  form  of  entertainment  may  be 
furnished. 

The  higher  grade  school  buildings  are  located 
here  and  will  give  the  regular  term  of  grammar 
school  education. 


82 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


Elevation  ami  Floor  Plans  of  Women's  Lodge 


r 10  iT  £ LOH  T!  0 /r 


Elevation  and  Floor  Plans  of  8-roofn  Residence 

Nitro,  West  Virginia 


83 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


Six-room  House  for  Mechanical  Foreman 


Four-room  House  for  Un- 
skilled Foreign  Labor 


Mi 

Ml 

CiDorf'  ■ 

. 

^lOOR 

Plan 

Four-room  House  for  Un- 
skilled Negro  Labor 


84 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


Tloor.  Plan 

Fro)it  Elevation  and  Floor  Plan  of  V.  M.  C.  .4. 


Nitro,  West  Virginia 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


85 


Elevalion  and  Floor  Plans  of  Y.  W.  C.  A.  Building 


Nitro,  West  Virginia 


Seven-room  Bungalow,  Fron! 
Elevalion  and  Floor  Plans 


86 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


Front  and  Side  Elevations.  Floor  Plan  of 
Civic  Center.  Nitro.  II'.  Ta. 


Skilled  Mechanic  4-room  Bungalow.  Skilled  Mechanic  j-room  Bungalow 

Nitro,  West  Virginia 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


87 


In  addition  to  the  above  buildings  there  will 
be  built  a public  garage  and  a laundry  building 
with  a dry  cleaning  establishment.  All  of  these 
buildings  are  heated  by  steam  from  a central 
heating  plant. 

In  another  portion  of  this  area  housing  is 
provided  for  the  executives  of  the  plant,  the 
department  heads,  etc.  These  houses  (seventy 
in  number)  are  of  five,  six  and  seven  rooms, 
and  consist  of  two  story  residences  and  bunga- 
lows of  various  designs.  These  houses  are 
heated  with  hot  air  furnaces,  using  natural  gas 
for  fuel. 

In  this  operation  it  was  essential  that  housing 
facilities  be  quickly  provided,  and  at  the  same 
time  fulfill  all  recjuirements  of  well  established 
industrial  housing.  This  feature  governed  the 
design  of  all  houses  except  those  in  Area  “R.” 
In  this  program  it  was  necessary  to  consider  all 
uncertainties  as  to  field  work,  the  eliminating  of 


congestion,  and  the  saving  of  the  time  and 
expense  of  building  under  conditions  not  the 
most  favorable,  which  must  necessarily  obtain 
in  the  installation  of  a plant  of  this  size.  The 
bungalows  were  so  designed  as  to  be  manu- 
factured in  sections,  which  was  accomplished 
largely  by  machinery  under  standardized  work- 
ing conditions  before  being  shipped  to  the 
plant. 

These  houses  are  so  constructed  that  they 
will  have  a reclamation  value  of  40  per  cent  of 
their  original  cost,  in  that  they  can  be  taken 
down  in  sections  and  moved  away  when  opera- 
tions cease  at  this  plant. 

The  plant  is  located  near  large  developed  as 
well  as  undeveloped  coal  fields,  and  for  this 
reason,  if  the  occasion  arises,  a ready  market 
should  be  found  for  the  buildings  when  they 
have  served  their  purpose  at  the  explosives 
plant. 


Six-room  Residence,  Elevation,  Floor  and  Basement  Plans 


n 

■RED  ROOM 

JHOWER  toilet 

L _I  A . 

n 

Kite  HEN 

LIVING  ROOM 

BED  ROOM 

BED  ROOM 

Porch 

□ — □ □ U 

FLOOR  PLAN- 

Five-room  Bungalow  for  Unskilled 
American  Labor 


Nitro,  West  Virginia 


THE  BEST  HOUSE  EOR  THE 
SMAEE  WAGE  EARNER 


l^y  RICHARD  HENRY  DANA,  Jr. 

Of  Murphy  mid  Dana,  Architects,  New  York 


IF  wage  earners  were  all  in  the  building 
trades  our  ])roblem  would  be  less  difficult, 
but  in  most  lines  of  work  wages  have  not 
caught  up  yet  with  the  sudden  jump  in  the  cost 
of  building  and  living  since  last  winter.  It  is, 
therefore,  a doubly  difficult  i)roblem  now  to 
build  houses  that  will  not  be  beyond  the  means 
of  the  small  wage  earner. 

Good  housing  has  just  gotten  to  the  point 
where  it  is  recognized  as  no  longer  philanthropy 
but  good  business.  Employers  realize  that  with- 
out good  housing  they  could  not  kee]')  their  best 
men  in  town,  and  that  with  good  housing  their 
employees  were  more  steady  and  contented. 
It  was  possible  for  them  to  build  such  houses 
and  get  a return  on  their  investment.  Since 
last  winter,  however,  the  prices  of  materials 
and  labor  in  building  have  risen  so  tremendously 
that  it  is  very  difficult  to  make  it  a pa>’ing 
proposition.  The  danger  is  that  employers, 
wishing  to  supply  homes  for  an  increased  num- 
ber of  employees,  will  build  ugly  and  unsanitary 
temporary  shacks  that  will  disfigure  our  towns 
and  cities.  The  trouble  will  be  that  these  so- 
called  “temporary”  shacks  will  not  be  tempo- 
rary, but  will  be  allowed  to  stand  for  years  to 
come,  looking  shabbier  and  worse  each  year. 
Would  it  not  be  a lasting  advantage  to  the  town 
to  co-operate  with  the  builders  of  these  houses 
in  some  way,  so  that  they  should  build  perma- 
nent houses  that  would  be  an  embellishment 
rather  than  a detriment  to  the  looks  of  the 
town? 

An  Economic  Problem 

This  problem,  then,  of  the  best  houses  for 
the  small  wage  earner  is  first  of  all  an  economic 


one.  We  have  found  since  last  winter  that 
literally  every  $25  counts,  and  that  there  is 
nothing  to  spare  if  one  wants  to  build  houses 
for  the  cheaj^er  rents.  In  this  paper,  therefore, 
the  economic  side  will  be  put  ahead  of  appear- 
ance, but  special  emphasis  will  be  given  to 
those  things  that  are  both  more  economical  and 
better  looking. 

The  subject  is  so  large  that  this  paper  will  be 
limited  to  the  suburban  style  of  house.  City 
tenements  are  in  most  places  well  regulated  by 
building  laws,  but  suburban  developments  are 
often  unregulated.  Besides,  the  suburban  style 
seems  more  typical  of  America  as  a whole 
than  the  tenement.  The  paper  will  be  further 
limited  to  houses  that  will  rent  under  $20  a 
month.  Houses  renting  for  $20  a month  and 
more  are  an  easier  problem.  The  more  difficult 
problem  needs  more  careful  study  and  scientific 
solution. 

Land  Costs 

The  question  of  land  might  seem  to  be  more 
the  field  of  the  landscape  man  than  the  archi- 
tect. But  the  cost  is  the  chief  question,  and 
the  more  the  land  costs  the  less  there  is  left  for 
the  house.  It  is  disconcerting,  to  say  the  least, 
when  an  architect  is  told  that  he  should  plan 
a group  of  houses  to  cost  $2,000  per  family, 
and  is  informed  later  that  out  of  tliis  $2,000 
he  must  allow  $400  for  the  land.  If  the  houses 
could  be  put  up  on  land  costing  about  $100  per 
family,  the  $300  saved  would  help  tremen- 
dously in  the  house.  In  building  these  houses 
therefore  a bargain  in  land  should  be  looked  for 
and  bought  at  opportune  moments,  far  ahead 
often  of  the  time  that  the  buildings  are  started. 


88 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


89 


The  small  wage  earner  must  not  expect  to 
live  in  a house  that  is  centrally  located,  but 
should  be  far  enough  out  for  the  land  to  be 
cheap  and  taxes  low.  There  is  a surprising 
amount  of  waste  land  even  near  our  large 
cities.  A view  from  the  Woolworth  Tower  in 
New  York  shows  twice  as  much  undeveloped 
green  area  as  built  up  area.  The  land  should,  of 
course,  be  near  enough  for  the  extension  of  elec- 
tric or  gas  lines,  water  and  sewer,  or  if  it  is  a 
large  development  a separate  system  for  it 
can  be  put  in.  Transportation  to  work  is 
another  important  consideration,  and  this  land 
should  preferably  not  be  more  than  fifteen 
minutes  walk  from  some  means  of  transporta- 
tion. 

Bargains  in  “Undesirable”  Land 

So  called  “undesirable ” land  should  be  looked 
for,  provided  that  it  is  not  unhealthy,  because 
the  land  will  be  so  much  cheaper;  the  un- 
fashionable side  of  the  town,  with  cheap  houses 
near  by  or  opposite,  unimproved  streets  and 
sidewalks,  land  next  to  a cemetery  or  railroad 
tracks,  land  very  sloping,  low,  bare  or  irregular 
provided  it  is  not  rocky,  (which  would  involve 
the  cost  of  blasting)  and  not  more  than  five 
minutes  walk  to  means  of  transportation.  The 
financial  success  of  a housing  development  in 
Derby,  Connecticut,  for  which  we  were  the 
architects,  largely  depended  on  the  undesir- 
ability and,  therefore,  cheapness  of  the  land 
when  it  was  bought. 

The  land  should,  of  course,  be  improved  to 
make  an  attractive  setting  for  the  house,  with 
concrete  sidewalks  four  feet  wide,  shade  trees 
in  the  grass  strips  between  the  sidewalk  and 
the  curb,  a front  lawn  with  no  fences  — which 
emphasize  the  smallness  of  each  lot  and  are  a 
continual  expense  to  maintain;  and  hardy 
shrubs  and  perennial  flowers  in  front  of  every 
house,  with  a chance  for  individual  flower  and 
vegetable  gardens  in  the  rear. 

The  Type  of  House 

Let  us  next  consider  the  type  of  house  that 
shall  be  used  as  the  standard  and  repeated  for 
the  sake  of  economy.  The  one-family  free- 


standing house  is  now  too  expensive  to  build, 
heat  and  maintain  for  rentals  under  $20  a 
month.  Furthermore,  it  uses  too  much  land  if 
sufficient  space  is  left  between  the  houses.  On 
lots  25  feet  wide  and  less  the  narrow  spaces 
between  these  houses  are  usually  damp,  dirty 
and  ugly.  The  houses  are  frequently  so  close 
together  that  the  middle  rooms  of  two  adjoin- 
ing houses  look  directly  across  at  each  other 
with  no  decent  amount  of  air  or  privacy.  If 
these  houses  are  two  stories  high  they  are  always 
too  tall  and  narrow  to  be  of  pleasing  proportions. 
The  houses  seem  to  be  standing  up,  which 
gives  an  unpleasant,  restless  effect.  If  they  are 
one  story  high  it  means  they  spread  out  a 
great  deal,  so  that  more  land,  foundations  and 
roof  are  necessary  and  run  the  cost  up  too 
much,  and  are  therefore  out  of  the  question. 

The  two-family  duplex  house,  with  one  family 
living  over  the  other,  has  all  the  disadvantages 
of  the  one-family  free-standing  house,  plus  the 
following  drawbacks:  There  are  no  individual 
front  yards  and,  therefore,  the  space  in  front  is 
usually  uncared  for.  There  are  no  individual 
back  yards  for  drying  clothes  or  for  vegetable  gar- 
dens. The  cellar  and  back  yard  are  not  easily 
accessible  to  the  second  floor  apartment.  There 
is  less  privacy  for  each  family,  as  the  bedrooms 
and  bath-rooms  are  on  the  same  floor  as  the 
living  quarters,  and  frequently  not  sufficiently 
separated.  There  is  no  saving  in  the  number  of 
stairs  over  two  houses  side  by  side,  as  there  have 
to  be  front  and  back  stairs  for  the  second 
floor  family. 

The  two-family  semi-detached  house  is  pref- 
erable to  both  the  one-family  free-standing 
house,  and  the  two-family  duplex  house  for  the 
following  reasons:  It  is  more  economical  to 
build  per-family  than  two  one-family  houses, 
as  the  party  wall  between  the  two  families  is 
less  expensive  than  two  outside  walls;  and  also 
each  house  is  easier  to  heat  in  cold  weather. 
By  economical  planning  one  chimney  and  one 
line  of  plumbing  can  be  arranged  for  both 
families.  By  having  the  scheme  only  two 
rooms  deep  no  room  looks  directly  into  another 
house,  but  looks  either  out  towards  the  street 
or  towards  the  back  yard.  Each  family  has 


90 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


three  sides  of  its  house  o}9en  to  the  light  and 
air,  so  that  it  does  not  feel  shut  in.  Further- 
more this  two-family  semi-detached  house  is 
much  more  pleasing  in  proportion  than  the  one- 
family  free-standing  house,  as  the  length  is 
greater  than  the  height,  and  the  whole  building 
sits  on  the  ground  in  a comfortable,  restful  way. 
d'he  two-family  semi-detached  house  is  no 
more  exi)ensi\x'  than  the  duplex  tyj^e,  and  avoids 
all  of  the  disadvantages  of  the  duplex  type 
previously  mentioned. 

The  Row  H ouse 

Houses  in  rows  with  three  to  eight  families 
in  a grouj)  are  chea]>er  still  to  build.  When  we 
first  began  using  this  tyjie,  we  anticijiated  that 
the  end  houses  would  be  rented  first,  but  they 
proved  to  be  the  last,  as  the  canny  householders 
discovered  that  the  middle  houses  recjuired 
much  less  heat  to  warm  them  in  winter  than  the 
end  houses.  Groups  longer  than  eight  houses 
in  a row  tend  to  become  monotonous.  These 
compositions  of  eight  houses,  however,  have 
great  artistic  possibilities  on  the  exterior,  espe- 
cially if  the  end  houses  are  treated  in  a different 
way  from  those  in  the  middle. 

Such  an  arrangement  of  two-family  and  eight- 
family  standardized  houses  might  at  first  sight 
seem  to  be  too  uniform.  There  is,  however, 
a great  chance  for  variety  in  grouping  the 
houses.  It  is  not  necessary  to  have  all  the 
houses  directly  on  the  street;  some  of  them  can 
be  placed  end-on  to  the  street,  and  interesting 
groujis  can  be  arranged  with  a long  house  in  the 
middle  and  two  short  houses  at  either  side 
around  a central  garden  or  lawn. 

Materials 

I'dreproof  construction  is  now  impossibly 
expensive  for  this  kind  of  house.  Concrete 
houses  are  much  talked  of,  but  these  are  too 
expensive  unless  the  forms  are  used  for  a large 
number  of  houses;  and  then  it  can  only  be  done 
economically  by  re-using  the  same  moulds  in 
succession,  which  means  that  this  large  number 
of  houses  would  have  to  be  built  during  a long 
period,  which  is  not  usually  desired.  The  con- 


crete houses  furthermore  tend  to  be  very  damp. 
Hollow  terra  cotta  blocks  make  good  dry 
houses,  but  are  too  expensive  for  general  con- 
struction use,  except  perhaps  for  the  exterior 
walls.  The  main  construction  of  the  exterior 
walls  and  floors  is  still  most  cheaply  accom- 
plished by  frame  construction.  This,  more- 
over, can  be  made  rat-proof  and  fire-retardent 
for  almost  no  additional  expense  by  means  of 
stops  made  of  concrete  — using  the  minimum 
of  cement  and  a large  amount  of  waste  found  in 
construction. 

For  the  exterior  walls,  the  question  of  local 
materials  enters  in  very  much,  so  that  it  is 
hard  to  generalize  on  this  point.  In  most 
localities  novelty  siding  without  any  sheathing 
is  still  the  cheapest.  This  does  not  make, 
however,  a very  warm  wall  for  houses  in  cold 
climates,  even  with  building  paper  placed  be- 
tween the  siding  and  the  studs. 

The  next  cheapest  is  usually  clapboards  on 
to])  of  sheathing  w-ith  building  paper  betw^een 
the  cla])boards  and  the  sheathing.  Shingles  on 
to])  of  sheathing  are  usually  a little  more  ex- 
pensive than  the  clapboards,  but  have  the 
advantage  that  they  can  be  left  natural  with- 
out any  paint  or  stain  if  so  desired. 

Stucco  on  wire  lath  on  stud  walls  is  some- 
times economical  in  the  end,  especially  if  sand 
is  close  by  and  cement  is  cheap  in  the  locality. 
Stucco  walls  protect  the  building  from  fire  on 
the  outside  and  do  not  have  to  be  repainted 
as  woodwork  does. 

Erick  walls  are  usually  not  dry  unless  the 
plaster  is  set  out  on  furring  on  the  inside. 
Sometimes  bricks  can  be  obtained  very  rea- 
sonably if  the  “run  of  the  kiln”  is  used,  that  is, 
using  the  hard  burned  and  soft  burned  brick 
with  the  consequent  pleasing  variation  in  color, 
provided  of  course  that  too  many  soft  brick  are 
not  used. 

Glazed  terra  cotta  blocks  on  the  exterior  we 
have  used  only  once  and  did  not  like  the  effect, 
as  the  blocks  were  too  dark  in  color.  If  these 
glazed  terra  cotta  blocks  could  be  made  in 
light  colors,  they  ought  to  prove  very  desirable 
for  exterior  walls,  as  they  are  light  in  weight 
and,  therefore,  cheap  to  transport,  and  give  a 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


91 


splendidly  insulated  wall,  keeping  out  the  heat, 
cold  and  dampness. 

Importance  of  Pleasing  Roof  Lines 

With  regard  to  roofs,  the  cheapest  type  is 
probably  the  flat  roof  covered  with  tar  and 
gravel.  This,  however,  usually  gives  a very 
unpleasant  boxy  look  to  the  exterior.  Slanting 
roofs  are  the  great  artistic  chance  on  the  exte- 
rior, giving  variation  to  the  houses  not  only  in 
contour  but  in  color.  The  roofs  are  seen  con- 
spicuously against  the  sky  or  the  trees,  and 
form,  it  seems  to  me,  the  most  important 
feature  of  the  exterior  which  should  not  be 
missed. 

For  roof  materials,  the  composition  roofings 
are  the  cheapest.  There  are  many  of  them 
made,  but  most  of  them  are  composed  largely 
of  gums  which  would  dry  out  and  probably 
not  last  more  than  ten  years.  Wood  shingles 
are  the  next  cheapest.  These  can  be  stained  in 
many  attractive  colors,  which  help  ■ to  protect 
them  and  increase  their  length  of  life  15  to  20 
years.  There  is  in  certain  localities  small-size 
inexpensive  slate  which  has  the  advantage  of 
making  the  roof  fireproof  from  the  outside.  The 
asbestos  shingles  come  now  in  soft  attractive 
colors,  but  are  more  expensive  than  the  cheap- 
est slate. 

Unless  rain  water  has  to  be  saved,  I would 
strongly  advise  against  having  any  gutters  or 
leaders.  This  omission  reduces  the  original 
cost  and  maintenance,  and  is  no  loss  to  the 
looks  of  the  building.  Tin  gutters  do  not  last 
long;  and  copper  is,  of  course,  too  expensive. 
The  saving  by  this  omission  is  really  quite  an 
item. 

The  chimneys  — usually  of  brick,  as  stone 
is  too  expensive  — look  very  ineffective  if 
small,  so  that  the  economical  arrangement  is 
the  plan  of  combining  several  flues  in  one 
chimney,  which  helps  to  give  a larger  and  better 
looking  chimney  on  the  exterior. 

With  regard  to  the  windows,  I would  strongly 
advocate  casement  windows  in  preference  to 
the  more  usual  double-hung  windows.  In  the 
first  place,  they  are  less  expensive  than  the 
double-hung  windows,  as  they  do  not  require 


any  weight  boxes  or  weights.  In  the  next  place 
when  open  they  give  the  whole  instead  of  half 
the  window  for  the  circulation  of  air.  By 
making  the  windows  open  out  they  can  be 
perfectly  watertight,  and  will  not  take  space  in 
the  room  nor  interfere  with  window  hangings. 
These  casement  windows  can  be  arranged  to 
make  the  bedrooms  as  airy  as  sleeping  porches 
in  warm  weather.  Shutters  are  expensive, 
and  are  unnecessary,  except  in  very  hot  cli- 
mates. The  rooms  can  be  darkened  by  dark 
window-shades  if  needed.  Bay  windows  and 
window-boxes,  while  attractive  features  in 
themselves,  would  be  too  expensive  for  this 
type  of  house. 

The  Interior 

I wish  to  make  a special  plea  for  fairly  low 
ceilings.  There  is,  I know,  a general  prejudice 
in  favor  of  high  ceilings,  but  there  are  many 
reasons  in  favor  of  ceilings  not  over  eight  feet 
high.  The  first  of  these  is  that  by  reducing  the 
height  of  the  ceilings  we  reduce  materially  the 
cubical  contents  of  the  building  and,  therefore, 
the  cost.  In  the  next  place,  the  height  of  the 
ceilings  is  then  in  scale  and  proportion  with  the 
width  and  length  of  the  rooms,  which  have  to 
be  small  in  a house  of  this  type.  Rooms  having 
low  ceilings  also  are  easier  to  heat  and  are 
cosier  in  appearance.  A large  part  of  the  charm 
of  the  colonial  farm  houses  is  their  low  ceilings. 
Also  low,  ceilings  make  the  whole  building  lower 
on  the  outside,  and  consequently  better  propor- 
tioned. This  does  not  mean  that  the  rooms 
will  be  stuffy,  if  there  are  plenty  of  windows  and 
the  heads  of  the  windows  are  kept  close  to  the 
ceiling.  The  space  between  the  top  of  the 
windows  and  the  ceiling  is  always  dead  space 
and  is  no  advantage  in  the  ventilation. 

With  regard  to  heating  the  interior,  it  is  often 
economical,  in  a large  group  of  houses,  for  the 
owner  to  supply  exhaust  steam  from  the  fac- 
tory, if  not  too  far  away,  and  charge  for  this 
heat  in  the  rent.  Steam  heat  installed  separate- 
ly is  too  expensive.  Individual  heating  systems 
work  very  well  with  hot  air,  but  in  the  mini- 
mum-cost houses  nothing  but  stoves  can  be 
afforded,  with  the  second-floor  rooms  heated  by 


92 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


the  registers  in  the  first  story  ceilings  or  by 
using  a type  of  stove  with  hot-air  ])ipe  to  the 
second  floor. 

d'he  interior  walls  are  most  practical  if 
])lastered  two  coats,  the  second  coat  smooth 
finish,  and  painted  with  washable  paint.  Nar- 
row bases  and  trim  are  not  only  chea]>er  than 
the  usual  heavy  work,  but  also  are  in  better 
scale  with  the  small  rooms  and  even  make  the 
rooms  seem  larger  than  they  actually  are.  The 
trim  should  lie  plain  and  unmoulded,  with 
slightly  rounded  corners.  Built-in  china  closets, 
dressers,  window  seats,  etc.,  make  the  houses 
more  rentable  and  save  the  tenants  buying 
certain  jiieces  of  furniture;  a saving  which  they 
appreciate. 

The  Plan 

W ith  regard  to  the  ]:>lan,  much  thought  should 
be  put  into  this,  as  it  is  here  the  chief  value  of 
standardization  comes  in.  One  good  standard 
plan  may  be  the  financial  and  social  success  of 
a large  group  of  dwellings. 

In  the  first  ])lace,  1 would  strongly  recom- 
mend the  most  sympathetic  treatment.  The 
plan  should  be  made  “good  enough  for  any- 
body,” and  not  “good  enough  for  those  peojile.” 
Coal  is  not  stored  in  the  liath  tub  if  there  is 
a coal  bin  closer  to  the  stove.  I feel  that  every 
one  has  the  right  to  live  not  only  decently,  but 
attractively,  and  even  in  the  smallest  houses 
I claim  that  this  can  lie  accomplished  by  a good 
plan. 

Sun  is  a prerecpiisite,  and  the  jilan  should  be 
so  arranged  that  e\’ery  room  will  have  the  sun 
for  part  of  the  day  at  least.  This  is  helped  by 
running  the  long  way  of  a group  of  houses  north 
and  south,  with  the  rooms  on  the  one  long  side 
getting  the  morning  sun  and  the  rooms  on  the 
other  side  getting  the  afternoon  sun.  By 
having  no  blinds  on  the  exterior,  the  old  New 
England  custom  of  shutting  out  the  sunlight  will 
be  discouraged. 

.\ir  and  ventilation  are  also  very  important, 
and  there  are  two  systems  of  obtaining  this 
result;  large  rooms  with  unchanged  air  or 
smaller  rooms  with  changing  air.  The  latter 
is  all  that  we  can  afford  in  this  type  of  house. 


and  to  my  thinking  is  just  as  good.  Cross- 
ventilation can  be  obtained  by  making  the 
l)lan  only  two  rooms  deep,  with  doors  and 
windows  o])posite  each  other.  Every  room 
should  have  at  least  two  large  windows.  By 
this  arrangement  we  can  get  the  minimum 
floor  area  for  a single  room  down  to  6o  square 
teet  and  for  a double  room  down  to  too  square 
feet,  which  greatly  reduces  the  size  and  cost 
of  the  buildings. 

The  next  requisite  in  planning  is  compact- 
ness. The  hall  space  should  be  reduced  to  a 
minimum,  preferably  only  small  square  land- 
ings at  the  foot  and  head  of  the  stairs.  Small 
rooms  can  be  made  as  livable  as  large  rooms  if 
good  places  are  provided  for  beds  and  other 
large  pieces  of  furniture. 

Privacy  in  a plan  can  be  obtained  by  having 
all  the  rooms  face  either  the  frontyard  or  the 
rear,  and  none  of  them  looking  directly  into  an- 
other house  at  the  side.  The  front  porches 
cannot  always  be  managed,  but  there  should  at 
least  be  an  air  space  under  the  whole  house 
with  the  bottom  concreted. 

On  the  first  floor  there  should  be  a small 
parlor  facing  the  street  if  possible.  This  should 
be  a separate  room  and  not,  as  is  often  the  case, 
with  the  front  door  and  stairs  leading  directly 
into  it.  It  then  becomes  a mere  reception  hall 
and  cannot  be  conveniently  used  for  a bed- 
room at  night,  as  is  often  needed,  especially  in 
four-room  houses. 

Dining  Room  and  Kitchen 
in  One 

In  houses  of  this  type,  there  is  no  need  for  a 
separate  dining-room.  In  fact  it  is  preferable  to 
combine  the  dining-room  and  kitchen  into  a 
fairly  large  room  rather  than  to  have  two 
separate  smaller  rooms,  as  the  large  room  will 
then  be  of  sufiflcient  size  to  accommodate  a 
family  gathering.  If  it  is  arranged  properly 
with  a well-lighted  space  for  the  dining  table 
at  one  end,  and  all  the  cooking  and  washing  at 
another  well-lighted  end,  this  arrangement 
works  ver}'  well.  There  should,  of  course  be 
two  laundry  tubs  with  covers  as  well  as  the 
kitchen  sink.  We  have  found  that  the  ranges. 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


93 


refrigerators  and  fly-screens  are  taken  better 
care  of  if  supplied  by  the  tenants  themselves. 

On  the  second  floor,  it  is  desirable  if  possible 
to  have  three  small  bedrooms  rather  than  two 
large  ones  on  account  of  the  children  of 
opposite  sexes.  The  bath  room  should  be  on 
this  floor.  Water  closet  and  bath  tub  are 
essential.  The  wash  basin  is  also  desirable,  but 
we  have  sometimes  when  hard  pressed  omitted 
this  to  save  plumbing  and  space,  and  therefore, 
cost. 

The  attic  should  be  used  only  for  air  space 
over  the  bedrooms.  Rooms  in  the  attic  are 
very  hot  in  summer  and  cannot  be  well  lighted 
or  ventilated  without  dormer  windows,  which 
make  the  roof  complicated  and  expensive. 


In  conclusion,  I wish  to  emphasize  that  we 
can  get  economy  in  construction  only  through 
standardization.  As  this  standard  scheme  will 
be  repeated  so  often  with  all  its  sins  or  virtues, 
is  it  not  worth  the  services  of  a trained  archi- 
tect to  get  one  economical  plan  with  good 
proportions  on  the  exterior? 

This  standardization  of  plan  can  be  given 
variety  by  interesting  grouping,  different  roof 
treatments  and  especially  different  color 
schemes.  This  last  variation  we  have  found  is 
the  most  important  of  all,  making  identical 
houses  look  quite  different  and  individually 
pleasing.  Good  proportions  rarely,  and  good 
color  schemes  never,  need  cost  more  than  poor 
ones. 


51NGLE  FAGJLY  HOU5L  1 A 

NATIONAL  AMERICANIZATION  CONNiTTEE  HOUSING  COMPETITION 


This,  and  a Number  of  Reproductions  on  Pages  Following, 
Show  Types  of  Houses  Designed  for  the  Americani- 
zation Committee  Housing  Competition, 

Murphy  & Dana,  New  York, 

Architects 


94 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


Plot  Plan,  Americanization  Committee  Housing  Competition,  Murphy  & Dana,  New  York,  Architects 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


95 


Types  of  Houses  and  Various  Floor  Plans  Designed  for  the  Natio)ial  Aniericanizalion  Comniittcc  Housing  Competition 


96 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


T vpe  i-A. 


l ypical  Houses  and  Floor  Plans  for  the  National 
Americanization  Committee  Housing 
Competition 


METHODS  OF  PXONOMY  IN  HOUS- 
ING CONSTRUCTION 

By  CHARLES  A.  WHITTEMORE 


IN  considering  the  question  of  economy  as 
applied  to  the  housing  problem,  we  are 
likely  to  lead  ourselves  into  the  common 
error  of  thinking  that  economy  means  the 
“least  ])ossible  amount”  as  referred  to  ex- 
penditures. To  any  one  who  gives  this  subject 
careful  consideration,  the  fallacy  of  such  an 
idea  must  be  apparent.  True  economy  and 
false  economy  are  as  far  apart  as  the  poles. 
Unless  we  get  the  correct  viewpoint,  our  whole 
discussion  is  likely  to  be  distorted. 

Economy  in  house  building  comprises  various 
elements.  Not  cheap,  shoddy  construction 
whose  life  may  be  but  a span  of  years.  Not 
the  chea])  tar  paper,  temporary  construction. 
Economy  means  low  cost  for  materials  of  real 
value,  with  construction  methods  as  good  as 
may  be;  omission  of  unnecessary  elements  and 
luxuries  and  simplihcation  of  all  possible 
processes. 


No  Economy  in  Cheap  Shacks 

Even  though  we  are  not  now  considering  the 
phase  of  “economy”  as  applied  in  the  psycho- 
logical sense,  we  must  here  record  the  fact  that 
there  is  no  real  economy  in  building  a cheap 
shack,  glossed  over  with  a superficial  dressing, 
and  presented  to  a workman  for  his  family  to 
occupy  at  a price  at  which  some  real  construc- 
tion might  be  obtained. 

Nor  must  we  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  the 
evolution  of  labor  is  not  complete.  The  cycle  is 
but  partly  rounded.  The  effect  on  labor  of  the 
shoddy  houses,  their  attitude  toward  an  em- 
ployer who  rents  them  such  an  apology  for  a 
home  and  who,  rather  than  help  them  improve 
their  conditions,  offers  them  accommodations 
no  better  than  the  slums  they  know  so  well, 
must  be  most  carefully  worked  out.  The  im- 
migrants of  yesterday  may  be  skilled  labor  of 
tomorrow. 


97 


98 


HOMES‘FOR  WORKMEN 


There  are  so  many  phases  of  the  housing 
problem  that  one  can  only  express  ignorance  of 
it  all  in  claiming  a complete  solution.  England 
spent  time  and  money  in  sohing  it;  the  United 
States  may  profit  by  England’s  experience, 
although  the  conditions  are  so  radically  differ- 
ent. Up  to  the  present  the  housing  efforts  may 
appear  to  have  been  conducted  on  the  jirinciple 
of  “grab  it  all  and  get  something  done,”  rather 
than  “offer  the  best  solution.” 

A broad,  general,  comprehensive  ])lan  should 
be  adopted  and  the  government  developments 
made  along  these  lines.  Once  this  has  been 
established  and  the  right  type  of  development 
determined  for  each  locality  — Macon,  Ga., 
does  not  recpiire  the  same  type  as  Erie,  Pa. — 
the  cpiestion  of  real  economy  is  encountered. 

Eor  the  purpose  of  this  discussion  we  will 
assume  the  t\'pe  selected  to  be  the  proper  type 
for  the  place,  and  that  all  the  details  of  the 
develo])inent  which  do  not  enter  into  the  actual 
construction  are  hap]dly  arranged. 

A First  Consideration 

One  of  the  first  considerations  is  the  magni- 
tude of  the  operations.  None  will  cpiestion 
the  greater  economy  in  a large  building  project 
of,  say,  one  thousand  houses  over  a develop- 
ment of  onh'  two  hundred.  In  the  interest 
of  this  greater  economy  the  government 
plans  should  be  so  laid  that  the  houses  be 
built  in  as  large  numbers  in  one  contract  as 
possible.  Not  that  the  numbers  should  be  car- 
ried beyond  or  even  quite  up  to  the  actual 
demand,  but  rather  that  the  housing  groups  in 
territory  as  nearly  contiguous  as  possible  should 
be  under  one  general  constructive  control. 
The  net  saving  to  the  government,  if  such  a 
method  were  adopted,  would  be  large  and 
would  offset  some  of  the  expenditures  in  other 
directions  which  may  seem  unnecessarily  ex- 
travagant. 

In  carrying  on  the  development  of  one  of 
these  groups,  an  efficient  organization  is  a 
vital  necessity.  No  house  can  be  built  as  a 
single,  separate  unit  without  the  skeleton  of 
an  organization,  and  the  functions  of  the  unit 
are  manifolded  in  the  group.  The  organization 


may  be  called  upon  to  purchase,  sell,  lease, 
mortgage  land,  buildings,  real  estate,  etc.;  may 
loan  money,  build  roads,  sewers,  streets,  etc.; 
may  develop  all  the  functions  of  a municipality 
and  still  be  in  the  pursuit  of  economy  in  the 
general  development.  Such  an  organization 
must  comprise  many  divisions  and  branches, 
and  each  of  importance.  Not  the  least  of 
these  would  be  the  material  purchasing  depart- 
ment and  the  contracting  and  building  depart- 
ment. On  these  two  actually  must  rest  the 
return  on  the  investment.  In  their  control  lies 
the  possibility  of  gain  or  loss  from  the  standard 
of  maximum  economy.  They  must,  therefore 
be  carefully  selected  and  efficiently  managed. 
If  the  development  be  large  in  scope  and  num- 
ber of  buildings,  the  purchasing  becomes  more 
nearly  a wholesale  rather  than  a retail  function. 
It  might  even  be  more  economical  to  purchase 
standing  timber  instead  of  builders’  finish. 
The  extent  of  the  possibilities  in  the  direction 
of  purchasing  is  limited  only  by  the  magnitude 
of  the  operation. 

As  has  been  noted,  the  careful  selection  of 
materials  is  of  utmost  necessity  in  order  to 
construct  houses  such  as  should  be  built  for  the 
workmen  at  the  various  shipbuilding  and 
munitions  plants  in  the  most  economical  man- 
ner. Careful  selection  does  not,  necessarily, 
mean  selection  of  the  grades  of  materials,  so 
much  as  it  refers  to  the  kind  of  material  which 
is  most  easily  available  in  large  quantities  and 
which  can  be  produced  and  delivered  with  the 
least  possible  delay.  In  this  item  again  the 
purchasing  department  of  the  organization 
plays  a great  part,  but  before  this  matter 
reaches  the  stage  of  the  purchasing  department 
it  must  be  very  carefully  investigated  in  la}dng 
out  the  original  work.  Eor  example,  in  some 
localities  stone  is  easily  available  for  founda- 
tion wmrk;  while  cement  means  additional  trans- 
portation and,  under  the  present  conditions, 
the  transportation  problem  is  in  such  shape, 
that  this  factor  should  be  eliminated  in  so  far 
as  possible.  Stone,  if  available,  can  easily  be 
hauled  over  the  road  by  teams;  while  cement 
invariably  means  not  only  car-load  but  train- 
load lots  if  the  development  is  of  any  magnitude. 


99 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


Standardization  of  Materials 

The  materials  having  been  carefully  selected, 
the  next  important  step  in  securing  the  best 
results  from  the  standpoint  of  economical  con- 
struction is  in  the  nature  of  standardization  of 
materials  and  details.  It  is  not  necessary,  nor 
is  it  advisable,  nor  would  it  make  a good  devel- 
opment, to  have  all  units  exactly  alike.  A 
change  of  units  can  readily  be  effected  without 
militating  against  the  standardization  of  mate- 
rials. In  one  development,  for  instance,  there 
may  be  but  two  sizes  of  floor  timbers  used, 
these  two  sizes  being  of  different  lengths.  The 
mill  getting  out  this  lumber  could  get  them  out 
in  the  exact  lengths,  and  thus  eliminate  much  of 
the  hand  work  at  the  building.  With  an 
arrangement  of  this  kind  the  rooms  which 
would  be  of  the  same  size  in  many  units  may 
be  placed  in  different  relative  positions,  and 
each  house  still  have  a very  satisfactory  plan. 

The  doors  and  windows  can  all  be  of  standard 
form,  detail,  and  size,  so  that  one  mill  order  put 
through  in  large  quantities  would  produce  the 
material  for  a very  large  operation.  The  classi- 
fication of  the  materials  at  the  building  would 
be  very  much  facilitated  because  all  of  the  units, 
being  of  the  same  size  and  interchangeable, 
would  require  less  scheduling  and  arrangement 
on  the  lot.  So  it  is  with  the  inside  finish,  which 
can  be  of  a standard  detail  and  yet  varied  in  a 
large  degree  in  its  arrangement. 

The  flooring,  the  kitchen  and  closet  fittings, 
the  outside  trim,  fireplaces  (where  such  occur) 
— all  of  these  can  be  standardized,  so  that  the 
same  materials  and  the  same  sizes  can  be  used 
in  all  different  parts  of  the  building  develop- 
ment and  eliminate  a large  amount  of  mill 
work.  This  same  thing  is  true  of  all  the  differ- 
ent elements  which  enter  into  the  house,  such 
as  the  ranges,  the  plumbing  fixtures,  the  piping, 
electric  fixtures,  hardware,  etc.  Purchasing  the 
same  type  and  style  of  commodity  in  large 
quantities  possesses  a great  advantage  over  pur- 
chasing the  same  quantities  of  different  types. 

Eliminate  Unnecessary  Rooms 

After  the  standardization  of  the  materials 
has  been  effected,  so  far  as  the  plans  are  con- 


cerned, a vital  necessity  is  the  elimination  of 
useless  and  unnecessary  rooms.  In  a private 
residence  for  an  owner,  when  the  residence  is 
built  as  a unit  by  itself,  many  features  which 
may  be  classed  as  luxuries  can  be  added  which, 
while  not  absolutely  necessary,  make  toward  the 
more  pleasurable  enjoyment  of  the  residence 
as  a dwelling  place.  Because  these  units  are  not 
essential,  they  may  easily  be  eliminated  in  a 
development  which  is  purely  commercial  and 
which  is  to  provide  houses  for  a class  of  work- 
men who  have  not  previously  been  accustomed 
to  the  comforts  and  conveniences  which  even 
such  a type  of  development  will  offer. 

An  architect  frequently  finds  in  laying  out  a 
private  residence  odd  corners  which  are  called 
storage  closets  or  by  some  other  name,  but  it 
must  be  a matter  of  careful  study  in  the  plan- 
ning of  housing  developments  to  eliminate  all 
odd  corners  and  to  make  every  inch  of  space  in 
the  house  available  for  the  actual  living  neces- 
sities. This,  of  course,  will  tend  to  reduce  the 
size  of  the  house  and  to  eliminate  some  of  the 
expense  of  the  building. 

Instead  of  kitchen  pantries  and  butler’s 
pantry  and  rear  entrance,  etc.,  arrangement  can 
easily  be  made  to  accommodate  all  the  materials 
usually  served  by  these  rooms  in  another  way, 
without  necessarily  increasing  the  size  of  the 
house.  For  example,  the  kitchen  walls  may  be 
built  with  cupboards,  similar  to  what  is  known 
in  the  profession  as  a “Dutch  kitchen.”  These 
cupboards  do  not  take  up  valuable  space  and 
in  many  cases  utilize  space  which  otherwise 
would  be  wasted.  So  it  is  with  linen  closets  and 
coal  closets  in  the  basement,  etc.  It  may  be 
of  psychological  value  to  allow  the  man  who 
occupies  one  of  these  houses  to  build  his  own 
storage  closets,  creating  a more  personal  inter- 
est in  the  house  by  the  labor  of  his  own  hands. 
The  unnecessary  rooms  and  unnecessary  closets 
and  storage  places  count  a great  deal  in  the 
reduction  of  the  cost  of  building. 

Plumbing  and  Heating  Systems 

The  heating,  plumbing,  and  electric  systems 
may  be  laid  out  on  a very  economical  basis,  or 
may  be  extravagant  without  being  any  more 


100 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


efficient.  'I'his  reijuires  careful  investigation  in 
order  to  determine  the  most  economical  layout 
of  these  various  functions.  In  some  cases  it 
may  be  wiser  to  use  the  hot  air  type  of  heating 
system  rather  than  steam  or  hot  water.  Loca- 
tion, weather  conditions,  climate  all  have 
an  important  bearing  on  this  work.  In  the 
colder  sections  of  the  country  steam  may  be 
used,  while  in  more  temjierate  localities  a 
furnace  may  answer  all  needs. 

In  laying  out  the  heating  system,  effort 
should  be  made  to  use  as  few  chimneys  as 
possible.  If  two  houses  are  built  side  by  side 
with  a single  wall  between,- - the  type  known 
as  “semi-detached,” — the  chimneys  may  be 
built  in  this  wall,  and  one  chimney  used  not 
only  to  serve  the  heating  plant,  but  also  the 
kitchen  stove  in  each  house. 

'fhere  also  comes  to  mind  the  ciuestion  of  a 
central  heating  system,  whereby  one  plant 
would  distribute  the  heat  to  various  buildings. 
This,  of  course,  is  desirable  and  economical 
where  houses  are  built  in  blocks,  and  may 
even  be  desirable  in  the  case  of  detached 
dwellings.  The  increased  cost  of  laying  ])ipes 
in  the  streets  and  underground  to  the  build- 
ings, as  well  as  the  heat  loss  due  to  imi)erfect 
insulation,  and  the  fact  that  a flaw  in  the 
heating  i)lant  would  inconvenience  so  many 
tenants,  is  likely  to  make  it  not  so  available 
in  the  cases  of  single  dwelling  units  as  in  other 
types  of  development. 

'Fhere  are  in  existence  now  in  some  cities 
central  heating  plants  which  sup])ly  heat  over 
a radius  of  miles,  and  in  some  cases  these  are 
economical  as  an  investment,  but,  undoubtedly 
the  merit  of  an  installation  of  this  kind  is  in  the 
magnitude  of  its  operation,  and  would  not 
necessarily  be  available  where  the  heat  demand 
is  small. 

'Fhe  plumbing  system  should  be  of  the  sim- 
plest type,  but  should  be  complete.  In  some 
housing  developments  the  lavatory,  usually 
jflaced  in  the  bathroom,  is  omitted,  and  the 
occupants  wash  at  the  kitchen  sinks.  In  the 
judgment  of  many  who  ha\'e  studied  this  prob- 
lem this  is  a case  of  first  cost  economy  which 
does  not  proc’e  wise.  The  people  who  occupy. 


or  are  likely  to  occupy,  houses  built  under  the 
])rogram  now  in  consideration  are  people  who 
may  not  have  been  accustomed  to  the  same 
type  of  living  conveniences  as  those  who  now 
occu])y  a relatively  higher  station  in  life.  They 
should,  however,  have  an  opportunity  to  acquire 
the  better  methods  of  living,  and  this  can  be 
afforded  them  without  a prohibitive  increase 
in  the  cost  of  the  house  development. 

Simplifying  Electric  Systems 

In  installing  the  electric  system,  three-way 
switches  should  be  entirely  eliminated,  as  the 
convenience  of  this  construction  is  greatly  over- 
estimated, and  the  cost  does  not  warrant  such 
an  installation  in  any  economical  plan.  The 
usual  heating  plugs  and  receptacles  may  also 
be  eliminated,  because  the  majority  of  the 
workmen  not  onlv  do  not  understand,  but 
l)robably  would  not  require,  devices  of  this  sort. 
Where  recei)tacles  can  be  installed  without  any 
additional  cost  beyond  the  cost  of  the  box  and 
cover  itself,  it  may  be  advisable  to  place  one 
or  two  of  these  in  convenient  places  in  the 
house,  but  such  installation  would  not  be  ad- 
c’isable  if  it  means  additional  running  of  wires. 

'Fhe  simplification  of  all  of  the  elements  enter- 
ing into  house  construction  should  be  the 
iqipermost  thought  in  the  mind  of  those  who 
are  making  the  de^'elopment  layout.  Stan- 
dardization alone  cannot  accomplish  as  much 
as  may  be  required,  while  standardization 
accompanied  by  simplification  will  undoubted!}’ 
produce  results  which  are  eminently  desirable. 

The  Choice  of  Floor  Materials 

It  ma}'  be  ad\’isable  in  some  instances, 
where  the  development  will  warrant  to  use 
floors  of  fire  resisting  material  such  as  concrete, 
to  use  plaster  which  will  not  readily  deteriorate 
or  dent  — such  as  the  patent  hard  plasters. 
The  use  of  these  materials  immediately  permits 
of  the  adaptation  of  the  hard  plaster,  etc.,  to 
the  jambs  and  trim  around  doors  and  windows. 
The  concrete  may  also  be  carried  up  to  form 
the  base  around  the  room.  Where  concrete 
floors  are  used,  however,  there  must  be  some 
other  surface  for  a walking  surface,  and  in 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


101 


this  case  wood  or  linoleum  can  be  readily 
adapted. 

There  is  a type  of  floor  construction  on  the 
market  which  is  not  only  economical,  but  which 
has  all  the  merits  of  concrete  construction, 
together  with  the  peculiar  characteristic  of 
being  of  great  tenacity  in  holding  nails.  A 
wooden  floor  may  be  laid  directly  on  this  mate- 
rial without  the  use  of  sleepers.  The  expense  of 
this  is  very  slightly  more  than  the  cost  of 
wooden  construction,  and  it  presents  a possi- 
bility of  plastering  directly  on  the  under  sur- 
face, eliminating  furring  and  lathing,  as  well 
as  the  nailing  strips  for  the  upper  floors. 
Materials  of  this  kind  should  be  carefully  in- 
vestigated and,  undoubtedly,  many  ada])ta- 
tions  of  structural  materials  not  now  con- 
sidered in  the  plane  of  economical  construc- 
tion may  be  used  to  advantage. 

Economy  in  Construction  Work 

The  economical  construction  of  houses  in 
such  a development  does  not  end  with  the 
careful  selection  and  standardization  of  mate- 
rials, nor  with  the  consideration  of  the  various 
details  and  elimination  of  the  unnecessary 
features.  This  forms  only  the  first  step,  and 
when  the  construction  work  is  commenced,  a 
very  great  factor  for  waste  enters  in.  The 
actual  construction  work  must  be  intelligently 
laid  out,  so  that  there  will  be  no  lost  motion 
and  no  waste  effort.  As  an  illustration,  con- 
sider a development  on  both  sides  of  a single 
street,  which  we  will  assume  to  be  large  enough 
to  accommodate,  say,  one  hundred  houses.  If 
the  work  is  carefully  laid  out,  the  excavation 
will  be  started  at  one  end  of  the  street  and 
carried  to  the  other  limit  as  rapidly  as  possible. 
.\s  soon  as  one  excavation  has  been  completed 
the  foundation  work  will  follow  and  be  carried 
through  to  the  limit  of  the  development.  With 
the  completion  of  the  foundation  of  one  house, 
the  carpentry,  framing,  etc.,  will  start  in  and 
follow  through.  By  the  time  the  masons  have 
completed  the  last  foundation  work,  the  first 
house  will  be  ready  for  plaster  and  chimneys. 
It  will  be  seen  that  in  this  way  a smaller  crew 
of  men  may  be  maintained  on  a development, 


and  will  accomplish,  with  systematic  employ- 
ment of  labor,  as  great  results  in  a given  space 
of  time  as  though  a much  larger  force  were 
employed  with  less  intelligent  direction. 

There  are,  undoubtedly,  a great  variety  of 
ways  in  which  the  work  may  be  laid  out  differ- 
ently from  the  example  cited  that  may  produce 
as  efficient  results,  but  it  is  obvious  that  the 
minimum  number  of  workmen  must  .be  em- 
ployed commensurate  with  economy  of  opera- 
tion, and  necessary  to  the  elimination  of  waste 
effort  or  loss  of  time.  This  can  be  effected  only 
by  a very  careful  plan.  A large  corporation 
carrying  on  work  of  this  sort  would  have  differ- 
ently organized  “gangs”  of  men  for  each  part 
of  the  work,  and  these  men  would  proceed  with 
their  respective  functions  in  one  portion  of  the 
development,  pass  on  until  the  whole  work  is 
completed,  and  then  on  to  a new  location,  and, 
in  this  way,  become  so  thoroughly  accustomed 
to  the  type  of  work  and  the  best  manner  of 
executing  it  that  there  would  be  considerable 
saving  of  time  and  effort  in  the  final  result. 
Intelligent  planning  of  labor,  as  well  as  intel- 
ligent planning  of  material,  must  be  a large 
factor  in  the  house  development. 

Harmony  Among  Working 
Forces 

In  any  organization  for  handling  workmen 
of  such  a character  as  is  here  being  considered, 
it  is  vitally  essential  that  there  should  be 
close,  intimate  co-operation  between  the  con- 
tractor, the  laboring  men,  and  the  material 
man.  A particular  effort  should  be  made  to 
maintain  an  equitable,  harmonious  arrange- 
ment in  all  these  branches  of  the  work.  The 
tendency  of  the  times  under  existing  high  costs 
is  to  make  the  labor  element  somewhat  restive, 
and  any  dissatisfaction  on  the  part  of  the 
laboring  men  necessarily  will  produce  results 
which  are  not  of  the  character  to  be  desired  in 
the  finished  work.  Every  effort  should  be 
made,  therefore,  to  see  that  the  laboring  men 
in  connection  with  these  develoj^ments  are 
properly  paid,  are  well  cared  for  as  regards  their 
own  living  accommodations  during  the  con- 
struction. and  that  the  surroundings  and  em- 


102 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


ployees  in  other  branches  of  labor  may  be  made 
as  harmonious  as  possible. 

The  magnitude  of  the  o])eration  enters  vitally 
into  the  cost,  as  it  is  obvious  that  the  greater 
the  number  of  duplicated  units  the  less  will 
be  the  individual  expense.  There  is,  however, 
an  economical  limit  where  this  may  not  hold 
true.  Such  a limit  would  be  in  the  instance 
of  one  organization  handling  large  develop- 
ments of,  say,  one  thousand  houses,  in  various 
locations  at  the  same  time.  Here  the  increased 
cost  of  shipment  to  the  various  localities  of  the 
different  items  entering  into  the  construction 
might  operate  seriously  against  the  lower  cost 
for  each  locality,  were  it  being  constructed  as 
a unit  by  itself. 

It  may  not  be  inappropriate  to  call  attention 
to  various  forms  of  contracts  which  are  being 
considered  in  operations  of  this  character.  The 
“cost  plus”  type  of  contract  is  being  super- 
seded, to  a large  degree,  by  types  of  contract 
which  are  more  favorable  to  the  s])eedy,  eco- 
nomical com])letion  of  the  work,  without  a 
possibility  of  friction  between  the  owner  and 
the  contractor. 

In  the  “cost  plus”  system  by  itself  there  is 
no  limit  to  the  e.x])ense,  and  this  fact  is  re- 
flected through  all  of  the  various  sub-contracts. 
It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  the  present  high 
prices  of  materials  are  directly  due  to  a large 
extent  to  the  existence  of  “cost  jflus”  contracts. 

A Better  Form  of  Contract 

A better  form  of  contract  is  one  where  the 
cost  of  the  operation  is  established;  where  the 
contractor  is  given  a fixed  proht,  plus  a propor- 
tion, say  one-third,  of  the  net  sa^’ings  he  may 
make  below  the  contracted  amount.  This  form 
of  contract  has  operated  very  satisfactorily  in 
private  professional  practice,  and  has  the 
advantage  of  giving  the  contractor  an  addi- 
tional incentive  in  that,  as  the  cost  of  the  work 
decreases,  his  remuneration  increases. 

Another  form  is  a contract  in  which  the  con- 
struction price  is  established  and  the  contractor 
allowed  a certain  percentage.  If  the  cost  ex- 
ceeds the  contracted  price,  the  profit  to  the 
contractor  is  reduced  by  a fixed  proportion. 


If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  cost  is  less  than  the 
contracted  price,  the  profit  to  the  contractor  is 
proportionately  increased.  The  only  disadvan- 
tage of  this  latter  type  lies  in  the  fact  that  no 
special  provision  is  made  for  extra  work  which 
was  not  contemplated  at  the  time  of  the  con- 
tract; while  in  the  “cost  plus”  type  and  in  the 
“first  cost  plus  percentage”  type  this  con- 
tingency is  well  cared  for. 

The  net  result  of  the  tremendous  housing 
operations  which  are  now,  or  soon  will  be,  in 
full  swing  will  undoubtedly  be  a readjustment 
of  prices  for  labor  and  material,  and  a rear- 
rangement of  contract  forms  which  will  do 
away  with  the  old  gamble  which  contractors 
are  called  upon  to  assume. 

Permanence  an  Important 
Consideration 

In  this  whole  housing  ])roblem  one  thing  of 
extreme  importance  which  must  be  kept  in 
mind  is  that  the  development  should  be 
arranged  so  as  to  be  a permanent  addition,  if 
possible,  to  the  locality  in  which  it  takes  place. 
To  do  this,  the  houses  must  be  made  of  a sound, 
reasonable  construction  and  character,  and 
provisions  must  be  made  to  render  the  develop- 
ments sufficiently  attractive  as  to  warrant  a 
permanent  investment  for  the  laboring  man. 
Primarily  these  developments  are  undertaken 
with  the  idea  that  the  laboring  man  will  pur- 
chase his  own  home  and  become  a citizen  of 
the  community  in  which  his  work  is  located. 
It  must  also  be  borne  in  mind  that  as  civiliza- 
tion progresses,  the  laboring  class  is  being 
educated  to  a point  far  beyond  that  which  it 
previously  enjoyed,  and  a development  of  this 
sort  must  not  in  the  least  degree  tend  to  repro- 
duce the  li\’ing  conditions  to  which  the  labor- 
ing man  was  formerly  accustomed.  The  psycho- 
logical effect  of  making  the  laboring  man  feel 
that  he  is  an  essential  part  of  the  community 
in  which  he  lives,  and  that  he  is  wanted  rather 
than  despised,  null  go  far  toward  making  a 
stable,  economical  building  and  manufacturing 
condition  in  the  country  which  no  other  course 
could  possibly  produce. 


FAIRFIELD,  ALABAMA 

AN  EXAMPLE  OE  THE  EINER  TYPE  OE  SOUTHERN  PINE  INDUSTRIAL  VILLAGE. 
ONE  OE  THE  UNIQUE  TOWNS  OE  AMERICA  THAT  WAS  BUILT 
BEEORE  IT  HAD  A POPULATION 


For  the  purpose  of  providing  ideal  and 
practical  home  surroundings  for  the 
army  of  employees  of  the  great  coal, 
iron  and  steel  plants  near  by,  the  town  of 
Fairfield,  situated  in  the  suburbs  of  Birming- 
ham, has  been  developed  on  a scale  hereto- 
fore unknown  in  southern  industrial  town 
building. 

After  a thorough  study  of  the  most  modern 
examples  of  industrial  town  planning  in  Europe 


and  America,  a comprehensive  plan,  suited  to 
local  tonditions,  was  prepared  and  executed. 
Progress  of  the  work  up  to  the  present  justifies 
the  statement  that  Fairfield  was  not  only 
planned  to  be,  but  is  already  shaped  into  a 
modern  town  that  will  make  living  conditions 
clean,  healthful  and  attractive;  that  will  not 
only  make  labor  contented,  but  attract  and 
develop  a better  character  of  labor  than  would 
be  possible  under  ordinary  conditions. 

All  improvements  for  health,  convenience  and 
cleanliness,  such  as  sanitary  and  storm  sewers, 
sidewalks,  curbs  and  gutters,  water,  gas  and 
electricity,  have  been  provided. 


An  Elaborate  Planting  Plan 

Ample  provisions  have  been  made  for  parks, 
playgrounds  and  recreation  centers;  an  elabo- 
rate planting  plan  of  every  street  and  avenue 
carefully  studied  as  to  soil,  size  of  trees  and 
shrubs,  color  schemes,  rotation  of  flowers,  etc., 
has  been  worked  out. 

A Civic  Center  has  been  provided  and  sites 
reserved  for  proposed  public  buildings.  All 
public  and  commercial  buildings  grouped 


103 


UI4 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


Civic  Center.  Recreation-Park.  House  Types  and  Plot  Plan  of  Housing  Development  at  Fairfield.  Alabama 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


105 


around  the  Civic  Center  were  planned  in 
advance  on  a comprehensive  scale,  as  a part  of 
one  great  scheme. 

Modern  houses  have  been  erected  by  the 
Company,  including  furnace  heat,  hot  and 
cold  water,  tile  baths  and  porcelain  tubs  in  the 
bath  rooms.  The  front  yards  of  these  houses 
are  planted  in  keeping  with  the  planting  on  the 
streets.  Walks,  flower  gardens,  etc.,  are  ar- 
ranged to  suit  the  surroundings. 

Harmony  In  Architectural  Design 

A study  of  the  main  streets  of  any  American 
city  will  illustrate  the  value  of  the  building 
restrictions  at  Fairfield.  In  cities  an  unsightly 
hovel  frequently  is  perched  next  to  a com- 
manding oflice  building,  the  former  a run- 
down shack,  and  the  latter  a masterpiece  of 
architectural  beauty.  One  individual  building 
may  be  artistic,  but  entirely  out  of  keeping 
with  its  surroundings.  Such  conditions  are  not 
allowed  to  exist  in  Fairfield.  The  building 
restrictions  are  provided  in  every  deed,  and 
closely  adhered  to.  The  effect  has  been  to  pro- 
duce a town  which  will  appeal  to  the  eye  in- 
stantly, which  is  beautiful  architecturally,  and 
which  will  remain  so  in  the  years  to  come. 
Every  building  conforms  in  general  style  to  the 
others  and  the  “effect”  will  be  maintained.  All 
business  buildings  are  built  to  conform  to  rules 
and  regulations  governing  such  buildings  within 
the  fire  district  of  larger  cities.  In  the  residence 
sections,  the  building  restrictions  vary,  accord- 
ing to  locality  or  zone.  The  minimum  cost  of  a 
house  in  Fairfield  is  $1,250.  Each  zone  has  its 
restrictions,  but  in  general,  no  house  can  be 


erected  closer  to  the  sidewalk  than  the  building 
line,  20  feet;  only  one  house  can  occupy  a fifty 
foot  lot,  etc.  All  of  the  restrictions  make  for 
beauty,  sanitation  and  convenience.  Each  zone 
has  a limit  under  which  each  house  can  be 
erected;  for  instance,  in  a certain  zone,  all 
houses  must  cost  a minimum  of  $1,250.  In  the 
next  higher  zone,  a minimum  of  $1,500,  and 
the  next  higher,  or  third  zone,  $1,750,  and  so 
on. 

Topography  Favorable  to 
Development 

The  peculiar  lay  of  the  land  at  Fairfield  lends 
itself  to  every  feature  of  modern  urban  de- 
velopment. The  level  sections  of  the  city,  most 
conveniently  located  and  accessible  to  the  large 
steel  plant,  are  desirable  for  small  homes, 
apartments,  etc. ; also  make  admirable  business 
property  and  sites  for  small  manufacturing 
concerns,  several  of  which  have  bought  busi- 
ness property  and  erected  plants.  On  the  other 
portion  of  the  property  are  beautiful,  wooded 
hills,  lending  themselves  most  admirably  to 


Front  Elevation  and  Floor  Plan,  4-rooni  Bungalow,  Fairfield,  Alabama 


106 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


Entrance  to  Fairfield,  and  a Variety  of  Bungalou'  Types  in  that  Model  Development 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


107 


Front  Elevation  and  Floor  Plan  of  Four-room  Bungalow 


Front  Elevation  and  Floor  Plan  of  Biinga 
low  of  Five  Rooms  and  Sleeping  Porch 


Bungalow  Types  at  Fairfield,  Alabama 


108 


HOMES 


FOR  WORKMEN 


A Duplex  Bungalow  Type  that  Proved  to  be  a “Best  Seller” 
In  the  Housing  Development  at  Fairfield, 

Alabama 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


109 


Ruffin  A.  Smith, 

Vice-Pres.  and  Gen.  Manager 


Fairfield  Land  Company 

No.  7 South  Plaza 

Fairfield,  Alabama, 

June  5th,  1910. 


Mr.  King  H.  Pullen, 
Southern  Pine  Association, 
Interstate  Bank  Bldg., 

New  Orleans,  La. 

Dear  Sir; 


Complying  with  your  request  for  a description  of  the 
most  successful  Duplex  Bungalow  in  Fairfield,  I submit  here- 
with a photograph  and  floor  plan  of  one  which  has  been  built 
a number  of  times  and  which  is  still  in  great  demand. 

The  popularity  of  this  plan  has  been  due  to  the  fact 
that  all  the  requirements  of  a three  room  apartment  have  Been 
met  in  a very  economical  manner. 

Built  of  Southern  pine  and  outwardly^ a comodious 
bungalow  in  appearance  it  makes  an  attractive  home  for  two 
families.  The  arrangement  of  the  rooms  with  divided  yards  in 
the  rear  insures  all  the  privacy  of  separate  dwellings . The 
back  porches  have  been  screened  and  can  be  used  as  sleeping 
porches  when  desired.  The  installation  of  plumbing  for  each 
flat  is  economical  as  all  fixtures  are  separated  by  the  center 
wall.  One  chimney  answers  for  the  entire  house. 

We  have  built  this  house  several  times  during  the  past 
year  at  an  average  cost  of  |2250.  It  rents  for  ^15. 00  a side 
vdth  a "waiting  list". 

Very  t 


The  Duplex  Bungalow  Referred  to  in  the  Above  Letter  Is  Shown  on  Page  loS 


110 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


the  efforts  of  the  landscape  architect,  and  fur- 
nishing a high  class  residence  section,  the 
beauty  of  which  is  not  exceeded  anywhere  in 


the  South.  It  afforded  the  architect  opportu- 
nity to  make  those  wide  sweeping  curves  that 
enhance  the  beauty  of  a residence  section,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  make  the  solution  of  the 
drainage  and  sanitation  easy.  Fairfield  drains 
naturally  towards  the  southwest,  but  nature 
was  not  left  alone  to  care  for  this  important 
feature.  Probably  no  town  in  America  has  a 
more  complete  or  adequate  drainage  and  sewer- 
age system. 

There  are  more  than  miles  of  sanitary 
sewers,  of  all  sizes.  Sanitary  outlets  are  pro- 
vided for  each  lot.  The  sanitary  sewers  in 
nearly  all  instances  run  through  the  alleys,  and 
are  easily  accessible.  The  fact  that  these  sewers 
were  laid  in  ad\’ance  will  do  away  with  the 
necessity  for  tearing  up  the  streets  and  alleys 
in  the  future. 

That  the  religious  life  of  the  city  might  have 
encouragement,  and  that  churches  might  be 
erected  to  meet  the  needs  at  Fairfield,  five  of 
the  most  valuable  sites  in  the  city  were  set  aside 
to  be  the  free  gift  of  the  first  five  denominations 
which  would  build,  under  conditions  named 
b}'  the  Compan}’. 

The  Company  set  aside  several  acres  of  the 
most  valuable  land  it  owned  for  a civic  center 
and  plaza.  In  the  Civic  Center  there  is  a site 
for  a proposed  municipal  building,  a public 
library,  a Y.  i\I.  C.  A.,  a public  bath,  and  a 
public  school.  Also  there  are  provisions  for  a 
recreation  park,  playground  and  similar  other 
features  that  make  for  civic  betterment. 


HOUSING  TYPES  FOR  WORKMEN 

IN  AMERICA 


By  CHARLES  C.  MAY,  West  43rd  Street,  New  York  City 


IN  attempting  any  sort  of  survey  of  the 
various  types  of  house  which  have  been 
and  are  being  used  to  house  the  workmen 
of  this  country,  a distinction  must  be  made  at 
once  between  housing  as  it  is  and  housing  as  it 
should  be.  Certain  types  of  detached  houses 
built  by  companies  even  within  recent  days 
of  comparative  enlightenment  are  too  primitive 
to  meet  any  set  of  minimum  standards;  certain 
other  types,  like  the  wooden  three-decker,  are 
in  themselves  obnoxious  and  will  presently  be 
legislated  out  of  existence.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  must  be  recognized  that  the  virtue  of  a type 
of  house  is  by  no  means  necessarily  in  propor- 
tion to  its  number  of  rooms.  Some  of  the 
largest  houses  have  been  planned  with  least 
care  for  convenience  and  for  proper  standards 
of  living.  There  have  sometimes  been  little 
regards  for  the  prime  essentials  in  working- 
man’s  house  design  — that  is,  for  economy,  for 
simplicity,  for  suitability. 

Virtually  every  planning  problem  is  a com- 
bination of  architecture  and  economics.  The 
proportions  vary  from  pole  to  pole,  from  the 
play-palace  of  the  millionaire,  where  the  limita- 
tions are  chiefly  those  of  the  architect’s  imag- 
ination, to  the  minimum  dwelling  for  the  la- 
borer, where  architecture  is  at  every  point 
circumscribed  by  economics,  and  the  fanciful 
has  no  place.  The  architect’s  province  in  indus- 
trial housing  is  that  of  the  planner  who  must 
show  that  his  habit  of  mind,  and  his  training 
have  fitted  him  to  grasp  the  economic  as  well 
as  the  aesthetic  side  of  the  problem ; to  prove 
that  comprehensive  planning,  both  in  the 
community  and  in  the  house,  conduces  toward 
good  design,  a sound  investment  and  a sat- 
isfying result. 


Relation  of  Land  Value  and 
H ouse  Type 

The  type  of  house  is  bound  up  with  the  value 
of  the  land  it  is  to  occupy.  It  has  been  said 
that  generally  the  poor  man  lives  on  expensive 
land  and  the  rich  man  on  cheap  land.  What  the 
well-planned  industrial  community  should  do  is 
to  reverse  the  poor  man’s  side  of  the  proposition 
and  give  him  the  chance  of  living  on  cheap 
land.  It  is  generally  agreed  that  the  goal  toward 
which  we  should  aim  is  the  possibility  of  home 
ownership  for  the  workman,  and  that  in  its 
best  form  this  means  an  individual  plot  of 
ground,  a detached  house,  and  a bit  of  land  on 
which  to  practice  gardening.  This  ideal,  so  far 
as  land  is  concerned,  is  sometimes  more  easily 
attained  for  the  lowest  paid  wage-earner  than 
for  the  skilled  mechanic  of  twice  his  earning 
power  — simply  because  of  the  discrepancy  in 
land  values.  The  common  laborer  in  a south- 
ern mining  town  can,  likely  enough,  occupy  four 
times  as  much  land  as  the  fabulously  well- 
paid  munitions  worker  of  Bridgeport.  In  some 
fortunate  instances  the  land  value  is  so  small 
as  to  become  a negligible  factor  in  determining 
the  type  of  house  to  be  used.  Here  we  may 
attain  at  once  the  ideal  above  mentioned, — 
individual  plot  and  detached  house.  Yet  a 
small  house  on  a big  lot  is  not  without  danger 
where  land  is  likely  to  increase  in  value,  ddie 
land  may  after  a time  become  too  heavy  a bur- 
den for  the  worker  to  carry,  and  he  may  see  in 
his  abundance  of  real  estate  a chance  to  relieve 
the  load  by  putting  another  house  on  the  same 
lot  with  his  own.  Unless  restrictions  prevent, 
this  tendency  is  always  present,  and  it  has  in 
the  ])ast  produced  some  of  our  worst  slum 
conditions.  Even  where  land  is  chea]),  then. 


111 


112 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


the  area  given  to  the  individual  house  should 
be  carefully  proportioned  to  the  grade  of  work- 
man and  his  capacity  to  handle  it. 

In  the  majority  of  cases,  however,  the  land 
value  is  a vital  factor.  Given  its  first  cost, 
add  an  estimated  charge  for  develojiment, 
including  amenities  of  planting,  linished  grad- 
ing, etc.,  and  a figure  is  obtained  from  which 
may  be  worked  out  the  cost  to  the  workman 
of  a lot  of  the  size  iirojiosed.  Roughly,  it  may 
be  said  that  the  pro])ortion  of  land  cost  to 
house  should  be  from  about  15  to  about 
25  ])er  cent.  In  another  way,  working  back 
from  the  price  agreed  upon  as  the  maximum 
advisable  for  total  selling  }irice  of  land  and 
house,  there  may  be  determined  the  number 
of  square  feet  that  can  properly  be  allotted  to 
each  house,  and,  therefore,  since  depths  of  lot 
are  usually  determined  beforehand,  the  typical 
lot  width.  Here  the  land  value  begins  to  bear 
directly  upon  the  type  of  house.  So  long  as  the 
lot  may  be  of  a normal  width,  and  the  jirospect 
does  not  point  toward  a jumj)  in  land  value,  the 
detached  single-family  house  may  be  properly 
used.  Where  land  is  more  expensive,  the  pos- 
sible lot  width  becomes  so  narrow  as  to  force 
that  condition  which  we  deplore  in  so  many  of 
our  factory  towns  — rows  of  houses  set  so  close 
together  that  the  space  between  is  a dark  slit, 
of  worse  than  no  x'alue  to  any  one.  The  condi- 
tions may  be  helped  somewhat  by  variety  of 
groujhng  — different  setbacks  and  different 
facings;  but  generally  speaking  we  may  say 
that  when  the  lot  size  is  forced  below,  say  35 
feet,  it  becomes  wise  to  reapportion  the  lotting 
so  as  to  include  semi-detached  and  grouj)  houses 
on  narrower  lots,  thereby  giving  extra  space  to 
be  used  for  detached  houses  on  adequate  lots. 
The  variety  thus  gained  is,  besides,  a great 
asset  architecturally,  producing  groups  of 
better  mass  and  scale  than  can  be  had  by 
indefinite  spotting  with  the  tiny  single  house 
units. 

Suitability  the  Prime  Essential 

For  the  dwelling  itself,  suitability  is  the  prime 
essential.  It  must  be,  first  of  all,  suitable  to  the 
nationality  of  the  worker,  and  since  our  com- 


mon labor  is  largely  recruited  from  foreign 
lands,  this  corresponds  somewhat  to  the  grade 
of  worker.  Distinctions  in  the  several  grades  of 
houses  occur  largely  in  the  living  c|uarters, 
since  in  essentials  a bedroom  is  a bedroom, 
whether  the  occupants  be  Hungarian  or  Italian, 
Pole  or  American.  The  point  that  is  sometimes 
overlooked  is  the  craving  of  the  workman  for 
the  monumental  in  bedsteads.  One  is  under 
the  necessity,  then,  of  either  providing  a wall 
space  wide  enough  and  high  enough  to  take  the 
high  head  of  a double  bed,  or  do  as  is  now  done 
in  many  parts  of  our  country  — install  the 
built-in,  disappearing  type  of  bed  as  part  of 
the  household  equipment. 

It  is  in  the  kitchen  that  the  greatest  varia- 
tions occur.  Its  size  and  importance  in  the 
family  life  may  be  said  to  vary  inversely  with 
the  grade  of  the  workman.  When  cooking, 
eating,  and  washing  all  go  in  the  one  room,  to 
say  nothing  of  whatever  super\asion  there  may 
be  over  the  smaller  sizes  of  children,  it  is  easy 
to  see  that  the  room  should  be  of  ample  propor- 
tions. When  eating  takes  place  in  a separate 
dining-room,  when  washing  consumes  a smaller 
proportion  of  the  housewife’s  time,  the  kitchen 
is  used  more  nearly  for  its  primary  purpose 
and  may  be  correspondingly  cut  down  in 
size. 

If  we  could  ahvays  assume  an  intelligent  use 
of  space  provided,  the  English  arrangement 
would  be  most  acceptable.  We  should  have  a 
small  scullery  — we  might  probably  call  it  a 
kitchenette  — in  which  would  go  on  all  the 
cooking  and  dishwashing,  and  nothing  more. 
The  large  living  room  would  then  have  one 
end  dedicated  to  dining,  and  such  a room 
would  be  really  utilized  through  all  hours  of 
the  day.  It  is  an  excellent  arrangement,  and 
it  would  work  well  — if  the  workman  would 
so  use  it.  But  as  yet  the  craving  for  a 
“best  parlor”  has  not  died  in  his  breast.  For 
the  present  the  scullery,  with  living-dining- 
room combination,  will  appeal  far  more  strong- 
ly to  the  higher  grade  mechanic  or  clerk  with 
small  family  than  to  the  majority  of  workmen 
with  larger  families  and  greater  kitchen  ac- 
ticfities. 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


113 


Consider  the  Rear  Entry 

Another  feature  which  is  somewhat  affected 
by  nationality,  but  is  a pretty  general  require- 
ment for  all  classes  of  workers,  is  the  rear  entry. 
A laborer  or  a miner,  just  so  soon  as  ideas  of 
decent  living  standards  are  adopted  in  his 
household,  loses  the  privilege  of  entering  his 
house  proper,  even  the  kitchen,  direct  from  his 
work.  The  rear  entry  is  his  first  stop,  and  there 
he  must  have  hanging  space  for  the  grimiest 
of  his  working  outer  garments,  before  going 
inside  to  “wash  up.” 

The  house  must,  in  the  second  place,  be 
suitable  for  the  locality.  Obviously  the  housing 
problem  in  a copper  mining  town  of  New  Mexico 
is  a far  cry  from  that  of  a New  England  muni- 
tions town.  This  affects  in  every  particular 
the  matter  of  construction,  with  which  we  are 
not  primarily  concerned  now,  but  it  affects  also 
the  type,  size,  and  shape  of  the  house.  Where 
land  cost  is  low,  where  the  amount  of  winter 
heat  required  is  at  a minimum,  it  is  as  cheap  or 
cheaper  and  perfectly  practical  to  omit  cellars, 
to  spread  out  over  the  ground,  putting  a four-, 
five-,  or  six-room  house  all  on  the  one  floor.  In 
a northern  climate  the  discomfort  and  heating 
cost  of  such  a type  would  render  it  quite  out 
of  the  question.  Similar  considerations  affect 
the  matter  of  roof  slopes,  eave  projections,  etc. 

The  workman’s  house  must,  furthermore,  be 
suitable  in  size  for  its  purpose.  There  is  a 
growing  conviction  that  the  general  average  of 
low-cost  houses  is  too  large  rather  than  too 
small.  . Superfluous  space  always  suggests  a 
boarder  to  occupy  it.  Heretofore  no  general 
attempt  has  been  made  in  planning  the  house 
to  make  proper  provision  for  the  boarder,  with 
the  result  that  his  presence  has  invariably 
tended  toward  lowering  standards  of  house- 
hold living.  Mr.  Ham,  of  the  Bridgeport 
Housing  Company,  advocates  making  it  pos- 
sible for  the  worker’s  house  to  grow  up  with 
him  as  his  family  and  presumably  his  income 
increase.  This  he  would  do,  not  by  building 
successive  additions  to  the  original  house, 
but  by  providing  houses  of  graded  sizes,  with 
a larger  proportion  of  small  ones  (that  is,  of 
five  rooms  or  less)  than  is  usual  at  present. 


and  by  making  it  easy  for  a man  to  change  his 
holding  as  the  need  arises. 

The  Bridgeport  Housing  Company  has  done 
this  very  thing,  at  least  so  far  as  the  provision 
of  the  several  sizes  is  concerned,  in  its  Con- 
necticut Avenue  group,  where  the  range  reaches 
a minimum  size  apartment  of  two  rooms. 
These  occur  in  a low,  two-story  group.  In  its 
future  enterprises,  however,  it  will  probably 
include  very  few,  perhaps,  none,  of  these  two- 
room  units.  The  tendency  is  to  attract  the 
floaters,  who  move  in  and  out  at  no  notice,  cause 
damage  and  depreciation  to  the  property,  and 
prove  generally  undesirable;  while  the  young 
married  couples,  or  the  older  ones  without 
children,  take  more  kindly  to  the  three-  or 
four-room  units. 

The  Single  Family  Detached 
House 

For  the  single  family  detached  house  the 
four-room  unit  comes  near  to  being  the  irre- 
ducible minimum.  And  here,  speaking  always 
of  the  family  group  with  children  of  both  sexes, 
the  rooms  should  be  arranged  as  one  large 
living-kitchen  and  three  bedrooms.  The  pro- 
gram lends  itself  to  good  architectural  treat- 
ment for  conditions  where  one-story  houses  are 
advisable;  it  is,  of  course,  very  difficult,  archi- 
tecturally, where  two  of  the  bedrooms  must 
be  on  a second  floor. 

The  five-room  house  is  the  first  grade  where 
size  and  arrangement  give  some  degree  of 
latitude  in  planning.  Accepting  for  the  normal 
family  the  three-bedroom  requirement,  puts 
the  sleeping  rooms  in  a majority  over  the  living, 
and  this  seems  unavoidable  unless  the  boys 
may  be  permitted  to  sleep  in  a transformable 
day  room.  When  we  advance  to  the  six-  and 
seven-room  houses,  we  enter  the  range  of  actual 
architectural  planning,  with  a multitude  of 
given  conditions  and  requirements,  which, 
taken  with  the  economic  side  of  the  case,  chal- 
lenge the  most  skillful  designing.  Up  to  the 
present  there  has  developed  a wide  variety  of 
plan  and  arrangement,  but  some  few  features 
are  common  to  the  best  of  them.  The  all- 
inclusive  requirement  of  simi)licity  is  one  that 


114 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


S30. OOP  000.00  ADDITIONAL  IN  VESTMENT  BEING  SPENT  HERE 


Jemison  Real  Estate  and  Insurance  Co. 


. SeiBCLS.  V 


REAL  ESTATE 

GENERAL  INSURANCE  LOANS 


BIRMINGHAM  ALA 

F A I K M K 1. , ALA, 


J M P OTTS 

AN  AO  e B 

fAlRFIELD  BRANCH 
PHONE  ENSlEv  196 


June  5th,  1918 


Attention  of 

, Pullen, 

Southern  Pine  Association, 

Interstate  Bank  Building, 

Hew  Orleans,  Louisiana, 

Gentlemen: 

Answering  your  Inquiry  concerning  the  Industrial 
housing  enterprise  at  Fairfield,  v/111  say  that 
this  work  was  Inaugurated  primarily  as  a means  of 
providing  proper  living  conditions  for  the  employ- 
ees of  the  Tennessee  Coal,  Iron,  & Railroad  Co,,  whose 
tremendous  manufacturing  enterprises  are  employ- 
ing and  will  employ  thousands  of  skilled  high 
priced  laborers. 

Their  manufacturing  enterprises  are  situated  In 
Fairfield  and  nearby, 

Fairfield  Is  said  to  be  the  most  beautiful  Indus- 
trial town  In  the  United  States, 

This  tract  of  240  acres  has  had  nearly  a million  dollars 
spent  on  It  In  the  way  of  street  Improvements, 
trees,  shrubs,  and  oarkviays. 

The  best  plans  and  housing  systems  for  the  laboring 
man  that  money  and  skilled  architects  could  produce 
have  been  provided  for  these  well  paid  men. 

These  houses  afford  the  following  advantages: 

Varlety-Practlcally  no  two  houses  being  alike, 

Vi'ater , 

Sanitary  Service  etc. 

Practically  every  home  in  Fairfield  is  built  of  South- 
ern Pine,  frame  construction,  and  I can  say  from 
close  association  with  the  project  from  Its  Incep- 
tion that  the  use  of  Southern  Pine  In  this  enter- 
prise has  proven  entirely  satisfactory  from  the 
standpoint  of  both  the  investor,  the  tenant,  and  the 
home  owner,  and  Southern  Pine  certainly  attracts  the 
buyer  because  it  furnishes  a good  looking,  comfortable 
home , 


Yours  very  truly, 

JEMISON  REAL  ESTATE  & r.lS.  CO, 


Manger  Fairfield  Branch. 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


115 


must  apply  to  every  detail:  to  the  shape  of 
the  building  (for  a given  area,  the  square  has 
the  least  exterior  wall) ; to  framing  of  beams  and 
rafters;  to  layout  of  partitions  — the  least 
possible  number  of  breaks  and  jogs;  to  dis- 
position of  plumbing,  so  that  the  piping  may  be 
most  direct  and  shortest;  to  the  stairway,  that 
the  run  may  be  easy  to  frame  and  put  together 
(a  straight  run  is  of  course  the  cheapest) ; to 
hall  spaces,  that  they  may  be  so  small  as  to  be 
economical,  but  not  so  cramped  as  to  be  a 
nuisance  and  a damage;  to  closets,  that  they 
may  be  properly  placed  in  relation  to  the  rooms 
they  serve,  and  of  a shape  to  give  maximum 
service  in  minimum  space. 

The  greatest  variation  among  low-cost  cot- 
tages exists  in  the  placing  of  the  stairway. 
Probably  a majority  put  it  along  one  side  of  the 
living  room  on  an  outside  wall.  This  is  often  a 
pleasant  feature  in  a room  which  tends  to  be 
featureless,  but  it  has  disadvantages:  the  room 
requires  more  heat,  and  is  always  subject  to 
drafts;  it  makes  the  living  room  a passageway, 
and  in  the  case  of  a boarder,  usually  involves 
giving  him  one  of  the  family  rooms.  The  next 
most  frequent  placing  of  the  stair  is  in  a little 
entrance  hall  at  one  side  of  the  house,  with 
access  to  living  room  at  the  other  side.  This 
results,  in  houses  of  three  living  rooms,  in  an 
impression  of  ample  scale,  because  the  rooms 
may  be  thrown  wide  open  into  each  other  and 
count  at  their  biggest.  On  the  other  hand,  these 
stairs  occupy  one  of  the  good  corner  exposures 
of  the  -house,  thereby  preventing  its  use  by  a 
bedroom.  This  exposure  is  sometimes  stolen 
back  by  gaining  a high-silled,  recessed  window 
in  the  bedroom  above,  in  as  wide  an  alcove  as 
head  room  on  the  stairs  will  permit. 

For  a Minimum  First  Floor  Hall 

If  we  are  willing  to  accept  the  small  house  as 
a small  house,  and  not  try  to  magnify  its 
apparent  size  by  throwing  its  first  floor  all 
together,  the  central  stairway  has  decided  ad- 
vantages. It  gives  a minimum  first  floor  hall, 
openings  to  living-dining-room  at  one  side,  to 
parlor  (or  bedroom)  at  the  other,  and  a straight 
run  of  stairs.  Its  economy  of  hallway  is  at  a 


maximum  in  the  house  of  only  two  bedrooms 
on  the  second  floor.  There  the  hall  at  the  top  is 
like  that  below,  with  merely  turning  space  into 
the  bedrooms  and  bath. 

For  the  semi-detached  house,  most  of  the 
accepted  types  are  derived  more  or  less  directly 
from  corresponding  grades  of  the  detached 
house.  There  are,  however,  several  points  at 
which  the  existence  of  the  party  wall  raises 
special  points.  If  houses  are  for  rent  only,  it 
is  desirable  to  concentrate  plumbing  into  one 
stack  for  the  two  houses;  it  is  well  to  get 
stairs  next  the  division  line  where  light  is 
least,  thereby  saving  the  good  exterior  corners 
for  living  quarters;  it  gives  better  privacy 
to  keep  living  porches  away  from  the  party 
line,  so  that  each  family  may  have  oppor- 
tunity to  live  unto  itself  insofar  as  it  wishes 
to  do  so. 

The  semi-detached  house  is,  in  most  cases, 
superior  from  the  housing  standpoint  to  the 
two-family  house  — from  the  architectural 
standpoint,  vastly  so.  The  lessened  sense  of 
privacy,  the  usual  difficulties  of  access  and  re- 
sponsibility, are  compensated  only  by  the  most 
exceptional  circumstances  and  the  most  careful 
planning. 

Limitations  of  the  Group  House 

The  group  house,  or  terrace  type,  is  becom- 
ing more  nearly  standardized  than  any  of  the 
others.  It  is  generally  agreed  that  such  houses, 
with  light  and  air  confined  to  two  sides,  should 
not  be  more  than  two  rooms  deep.  Anything 
more  results  in  the  pocketing  of  the  interior 
room,  and  shutting  off  cross-drafts  from  the 
others.  Here  again  the  stair  arrangement  is  the 
crux  of  the  planning  problem.  A very  compact 
and  economical  plan  is  that  in  which  stairs  go 
up  directly  from  the  main  entrance,  with  a 
parlor-bedroom  at  the  side  and  a single  room, 
the  living-kitchen,  at  the  rear.  Upstairs  is 
equally  direct  and  simple.  The  difficulty  seems 
to  lie  in  the  use  made  of  the  downstairs  front 
room.  If  as  a parlor,  well  and  good;  but  if  as  a 
bedroom,  the  necessity  of  passing  through  it 
to  get  to  the  kitchen  from  upstairs  is  a serious 
defect. 


116 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


Another  type  places  the  stairs  in  the  center  of 
the  house,  running  crosswise.  This  has  the 
advantage  of  not  recpiiring  much  framing  of 
beams,  and  it  gives  the  front  bedroom  of  the 
second  floor  the  benefit  of  the  entire  width  of 
the  house.  On  the  other  hand,  to  get  the  sejia- 
rate  access  to  the  living-kitchen,  there  must  be 


a hall  leading  back  to  it  the  full  depth  of  the 
front  room.  \Vliile  on  plan  this  appears  a 
waste  of  space,  every  one  must  realize  the 
necessity,  even  in  the  minimum-sized  house,  of 
a certain  amount  of  hanging  space  for  coats, 
etc.,  which  will  be  so  used,  in  any  event,  in  the 
rooms  themselves  if  no  other  space  is  available. 


■ ;g 

• Fcv-'i’v/O'  ■ 

• V-ECC;\:.^-:  ea:  ■ 

- r-  p;' : -■  F.-\.  • 


.1  Tu'o-family  Type  Bouse  at  Indian  Bill,  Worcester,  Mass.  Grosvenor  Atterhury,  Architect 


INDIAN  HILL 

AN  INDUSTRIAL  VILLAGE  AT  WORCESTER,  MASS. 

GROSVENOR  ATTERBURY 

Town  Planner  and  Architect 

By  CHARLES  C.  MAY 


A DESCRIPTION  of  the  settlement  which 
the  Norton  Company  of  Worcester, 
■ Mass.,  is  building  for  its  employees 
might  well  take  for  its  text,  “A  city  that  is  set 
on  a hill  cannot  be  hid.”  Certain  it  is  that  if 
the  development  is  successful,  its  attractions 
will  become  a beacon  to  the  countryside  for 
miles  around;  if  it  should  fail  in  any  consider- 
able degree,  its  shortcomings  will  become  a 
lesson  that  he  may  read  who  runs  anywhere  in 
the  vicinity. 

Which  means  that  Indian  Hill  is  the  possessor 
of  a most  commanding  site.  Removed  by  sev- 
eral miles  from  the  heart  of  the  city  of  Worcester 
is  Indian  Lake,  a sheet  of  water  perhaps  a mile 
and  a half  in  length  by  half  as  much  in  width. 
Its  banks  have  not,  as  yet,  been  reached  by 
industrial  development  and  lie  happily  un- 
spoiled — a challenge  to  the  city  of  Worcester 
for  appreciation  and  preservation. 

Indian  Hill  itself  — the  “thirty-acre  tract,” 
as  it  has  been  named  during  the  development  — 
occupies  the  lofty  ridge  that  thrusts  its  point 
out  toward  the  head  of  the  lake.  Before  it  lies 
the  open  country  in  opulent  variety  in  all 
directions,  to  the  limits  of  perhaps  300  degrees 
of  the  circle.  Holding  the  northern  end  of  the 
lake,  the  major  part  of  the  hillside  slopes  toward 
the  south,  with  the  higher  wooded  areas  at  its 
back  for  buffers  against  the  north  winds.  This 
is  a detail  of  not  merely  sentimental  value,  for 
in  these  latitudes  the  land  of  extended  outlook 
is  also  the  land  of  bitter-cold  blasts. 

Back  from  the  northeastern  corner  of  the 
lake  and  within  the  angle  between  the  main  rail- 
road and  its  branch,  lies  the  plant  of  the 
Norton  Company,  of  which  the  area  hardly 


remains  constant  from  month  to  month,  so 
rapidly  have  its  physical  requirements  expanded 
within  two  years.  A statement  as  of  August, 
iqi6,  would  place  its  extent  at  twenty-six  and 
two-thirds  acres  — a modern  plant  manned  by 
some  3,700  employees.  Primarily  for  the  ade- 
quate housing  of  these  men  and  their  families 
was  formed  the  Indian  Hill  Company,  a sub- 
sidiary of  the  Norton  Company,  entitled  under 
Massachusetts  laws  to  acquire,  develop  and  dis- 
pose of  real  estate.  It  is  accordingly  the  Indian 
Hill  Company  which  has  brought  together  and 
is  now  engaged  in  developing  holdings  of  some 
1 16  acres,  of  which  Indian  Hill  proper  forms 
the  first  demonstration.  The  development,  as 
has  been  said,  is  primarily  to  provide  adequate 
housing  for  its  employees,  with  a view  toward 
individual  ownership,  permanency  and  con- 
tentment in  employment,  and  resultant  general 
efficiency.  In  these  objects  the  company  is 
self-seeking  only  in  the  same  degree  that  the 
word  might  be  applied  to  those  others  of  its 
institutions  for  the  office  workers  — the  audi- 
torium, the  gymnasium,  the  rest-periods,  the 
hospital,  the  tennis  courts,  to  name  some  of 
them  at  random. 

Secondarily,  and  in  no  sense  selfish,  was  the 
company’s  hope  that  in  wrestling  with  their 
own  housing  problem  they  might  at  the  same 
time  make  some  contribution  toward  the  solu- 
tion of  the  wider  problem  of  workingmen’s 
houses  in  general. 

The  Community  Plan 

The  plan  that  has  actually  been  worked  out 
by  Grosvenor  Atterbury  of  New  York,  town 
planner  for  the  development  and  architect  for 


117 


118 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


P«d-R,oo»i. 


Eoorri 


Single  Family  Dierlling,  Indian  Hill 


Plot  Plan.  Indian  Hill.  Worcester,  Mass- 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


119 


the  houses,  is  the  result  of  careful  study  of  all 
the  conditions.  It  seeks  to  secure  the  best  pos- 
sible grades  for  the  main  circulation  roads,  and 
only  slightly  steeper  for  the  minor,  non-traffic 
ones;  it  shows  deference  for  the  natural  features 
of  the  site  in  conformation,  woodlands,  views 
and  exposures;  it  seeks  to  provide  quiet  by- 
paths away  from  the  lines  which  will  one  day 
be  thronged  with  streams  of  traffic,  in  order 
that  in  these  spots  may  always  be  preserved 
that  domesticity,  intimacy  and  hint  of  aloof- 
ness that  belongs  rightly  to  cottage  surround- 
ings. 

The  main  lines  for  traffic,  as  projected,  are 
Indian  Hill  Road  and  the  street  that  climbs  up 
the  shoulder  of  the  hill  after  crossing  the  rail- 
way cut  and  circling  in  a double  sweep  to  enter 
the  Community  Center  from  either  side.  This 
latter  approach  anticipates  the  creation  of  a 
shore  drive  which,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  will  some 
day  skirt  the  edge  of  the  lake,  where  it  would 
form  a connecting  link  between  the  areas  on  the 
east  and  west.  This  shore  drive  would  further- 
more preserve  the  banks  of  the  lake  to  the  city 
for  all  time  and  prevent  private  exploitation 
in  a manner  that  might  injure  the  entire  section. 

The  Community  Center  is  placed  at  a point 
which  combines  the  geographic  location  needed 
for  such  a gathering  place,  with  other  desirable 
elements.  It  holds  the  salient  point  on  the 
shoulder  of  the  hill,  where  grades  are  least 
difficult  to  manage;  it  will  witness  the  passage 
of  nearly  all  the  through  travel  of  the  section; 
it  commands  a magnificent  view,  which  should 
in  itself  prove  a magnet  to  attract  the  strolls  of 
the  villagers.  To  enhance  the  charms  of  this 
outlook  the  side  of  the  square  toward  the  lake 
will  be  left  open  and  treated  as  a public  ter- 
race. Footpaths  will  also  be  brought  down  the 
steeper  slopes  of  the  hill  toward  the  Center  in 
order  to  provide  easy  cross-cuts  and  thus  make 
it  readily  accessible  for  pedestrians,  shoppers 
and  strollers. 

The  secondary  streets  are,  in  the  majority  of 
cases,  contour  roads.  Looked  at  merely  as  a 
paper  plan,  the  layout  is  definitely  lacking  in 
cross  connections.  But,  studying  the  topog- 
raphy, one  realizes  that  gradients  so  steep  as 


these  would  be  impossible  for  any  but  travel 
on  foot,  and  that  to  create  roadways  suitable 
for  vehicles  would  entail  expenses  quite  pro- 
hibitive in  a development  of  this  character. 
The  footpaths  just  mentioned  are  therefore  by 
way  of  a compromise  to  break  up  the  long 
blocks. 

When  it  was  first  proposed  to  develop  the 
lovely  little  grove  which  is  now  Nashoba  Place 
in  the  manner  of  a close,  it  was  an  open  ques- 
tion whether  or  not  such  an  arrangement  would 
appeal  to  the  American  buyer  (or  to  the  foreign- 
born  employee  grown  American  in  tastes). 
Experienced  real  estate  men  have  told  us  re- 
peatedly: “First  of  all,  give  each  one  his  full 
share  of  frontage  on  the  building  line.  The 
American  loves  his  look  at  the  asphalt.”  Mr. 
Atterbury  had  faced  this  situation  before  in  the 
planning  of  Forest  Hills  Gardens.  There, 
despite  pessimistic  views  as  to  American  dis- 
crimination, groups  involving  so-called  “rear” 
housing  units  were  liberally  used,  but  with 
some  fear  and  trembling  for  the  outcome. 
Actually,  the  very  first  sale  was  a house  that 
had  greater  setback,  less  view  of  the  asphalt; 
from  that  day  on  there  has  never  been  a doubt 
of  the  salability  of  grouped  units,  in  Forest 
Hills. 

The  Same  Problem,  with  a 
Difference 

At  Indian  Hill  the  question  was  reopened  in 
a development  of  a different  character.  Here 
the  provisions  of  public  amenities  were  to  be 
more  limited,  the  cost  of  private  houses  far 
less,  the  whole  project  more  circumscribed  by 
financial  limitations.  Yet  here,  too,  wffiere 
the  very  modest  little  house  could  rely  upon 
little  landscaping  or  “ trimmings  ” to  dress  it  up, 
the  result  has  been  identical  with  that  in 
Forest  Hills.  Faith  has  been  justified  in  be- 
lieving that  in  most  cases  the  buyer  (be  it  of  a 
house  to  cost  $3,000  or  $10,000)  needs  only  to 
be  shown.  True,  he  lacks  usually,  in  both 
cases,  the  imagination  to  see  it  for  himself, 
exactly  as  he  lacks  the  training  to  read  an  archi- 
tectural elevation;  but  given  some  one  to  put 
the  demonstration  on  the  ground  before  him. 


120 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


.1  Typical  Bedroom 


House  T}*pes  and  a Typical 
Interior  at  Indian  Hill, 
Worcester,  Mass. 


An  Individual  House  of  the  Smaller  Type 


121 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


and  perhaps  to  explain  a few  of  the  whys,  he 
is  by  no  means  slow  to  grasp  the  truth  and  to 
act  upon  it.  Nashoba  Place  has  accordingly 
been  successful  from  the  first;  fully  occupied, 
tastefully  planned,  delightfully  sheltered,  it 
already  has  some  of  that  equality  which,  a few 
years  ago,  one  sought  vainly  in  this  country  and 
found  only  by  traveling  to  England. 

Construction  work  at  Indian  Hill  has  here- 
tofore been  confined  to  dwellings  — some  fifty- 
eight  of  them,  built  in  two  operations  during  the 
summers  of  1915  and  1916.  Enough  has  been 
done  to  give  a suggestion  of  the  ultimate  look 
of  the  town  — white  walls  seen  among  the  trees, 
roofs  gray  green  to  unify  the  composition.  The 
white  was  selected  because  of  its  consistency 
with  New  England  traditions,  and  of  its  ef- 
ectiveness,  viewed  from  close  at  hand  or  from 
a distance,  and  because,  unlike  any  other  color, 
it  can  be  repeated  in  a great  number  of  cases 
without  becoming  tiresome.  The  roof  color  is 
the  same  throughout,  as  we  have  said,  to  bring 
unity  into  the  composition.  Where  a collection 
of  houses  can  be  seen  all  together  and  from  a 
distance,  this  common  bond  between  the  in- 
dividual units  is  of  the  greatest  value;  it  is  like 
the  family  resemblance  that  marks  them  all  one 
kindred.  Only  by  this  and  similar  evidences  of 
collective  planning  can  there  be  produced 
dignity  and  carrying  power  in  an  aggregation  of 
which  the  units,  taken  singly,  must  be  too  small 
or  too  insignificant  to  be  effective. 

Detached  Houses  Liked  Best 

This  problem  is  peculiarly  pressing  at  Indian 
Hill,  since  the  number  of  buildings  other  than 
tiny  cottage  units,  is  at  a minimum.  Eor,  by 
a curious  psychological  kink,  the  grouped  party- 
wall  dwellings  that  are  the  rule  in  English  gar- 
den cities  are  usually  rejected  with  scorn  by  the 
industrial  worker.  He  pridefully  insists  that  his 
dwelling  shall  be  placed  on  his  own  lot,  with 
free  spaces  all  around,  and  shall  be  guarded  to 
the  last  foot  from  any  loss  of  power  in  its  proc- 
lamation of  individual  ownership.  Even  the 
two-family  semi-detached  house,  although 
planned  to  give  perfect  privacy,  exposure  and 
open  spaces,  does  not  as  yet  appeal  strongly  to 


the  buyer,  except  in  special  circumstances  of 
relationship  or  a David-and-Jonathan  intimacy 
between  two  families. 

Further  development  will,  of  course,  work 
vast  improvement  in  that  there  are  already 
provided  site  reservations  for  several  build- 
ings of  adequate  mass  in  different  sections  of 
the  property.  There  is  the  Dining  Hall,  at  the 
fork  of  the  streets  as  one  enters  Indian  Hill 
from  the  plant;  the  Satucket  Inn,  really  an 
exalted  boarding  house  for  bachelors,  embody- 
ing the  features  of  a club;  a similar  institution 
for  the  bachelor  girls  of  the  office  force,  a chapel, 
a recreation  hall.  Considering  that  these  are 
quite  apart  from  the  buildings  that  will  form 
the  three-sided  enclosure  of  the  Community 
Center,  we  may  feel  that  the  amount  of  reser- 
vation for  larger  buildings  is  generous  enough 
to  go  far  toward  overcoming  the  handicap  of 
the  minuteness  of  the  individual  units. 

Generous  Spaces  for  Playgrounds 

In  a countryside  as  open  and  unrestricted  as 
in  Indian  Hill  today,  it  would  not  be  surprising 
if  it  were  difficult  or  impossible  to  prove  to  the 
promoters  the  wisdom  of  large  reservations  for 
park  areas.  Fortunately  this  has  not  been  true. 
It  is  the  policy  of  the  Indian  Hill  Company  to 
preserve  generous  tracts  of  high,  wooded  land 
as  a playground  for  the  villagers;  certain  parts 
of  the  lake  shore  will  doubtless  be  developed 
for  bathing,  boating  and  water  sports;  and  over 
along  the  east  base  of  the  hill  will  be  the  general 
recreation  center.  A comparatively  slight 
amount  of  modeling  will  make  the  side  hill  into 
a natural  amphitheater,  before  which  will  be 
spread  out  the  baseball  field,  the  running  track 
and  their  adjuncts. 

Besides  park  areas  for  the  general  public, 
serious  consideration  is  being  given  to  the  ques- 
tion of  providing  small  parks  in  the  interiors 
of  various  blocks  as  a play  space  for  the  children 
from  the  homes  surrounding. 

The  numerous  ad\’antages  of  this  system  — 
safety,  accessibility,  economy  of  land  value, 
ease  of  su]:)ervision  — are  all  so  familiar  and  so 
generally  recognized  that  comment  is  uncalled 
for. 


122 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


Sired  Scene,  Indimi  Hill 


Type  D-j  House,  and  Variations  of  Floor  Plans  for  This  Type 


Indian  Hill,  Worcester,  Mass 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


123 


Buyers  at  Indian  Hill  have  every  reasonable 
assurance  of  the  stability  of  their  purchase. 
They  know  of  the  substantial  materials  that 
have  been  built  into  their  houses  (brass  supply 
piping  and  copper  flashings  are  not  used  by  the 
jerry  builder),  and  they  know  that  no  man  can 
plant  a factory  or  a store  or  a saloon  next  door 
to  them.  In  other  words,  the  property  is  all 
sold  under  carefully  considered  protective  re- 
strictions, which  are  accepted  and  recognized  by 
the  purchaser  as  equally  valuable  to  themselves 
as  to  the  company. 

In  detail,  they  have  been  well  explained  in  a 
pamphlet  recently  published  by  the  owners,  as 
follows : 

Terms  of  Purchase 

The  Indian  Hill  Company  requires  from  the 
purchaser  an  initial  payment  of  a certain  per- 
centage of  the  purchase  price,  whereupon  a con- 
veyance of  the  property  is  made.  For  the  bal- 
ance of  the  purchase  price  the  purchaser  gives 
two  notes,  one  for  $i,ooo  payable  in  twelve 
years  at  5 per  cent,  and  another  for  the  balance 
of  the  purchase  price  payable  on  demand,  with 
interest  at  5 per  cent,  both  notes  being  secured 
by  a purchase  money  mortgage. 

The  purchaser  gives  also  a supplementary 
agreement  to  the  effect  that  he  will  purchase  in 
a co-operative  bank  five  shares,  and  will  con- 
tinue payments  thereupon  until  his  deposits 
shall  have  matured  in  the  sum  of  $1,000,  v/hich 
in  local  banks,  at  the  prevailing  rate  of  interest 
takes  place  in  about  eleven  years  and  ten 
months.  This  insures  the  payment  of  the 
twelve-year  note  according  to  its  terms.  It 
gives  the  purchaser  a feeling  of  independence, 
inasmuch  as  he  does  not  make  periodical  pay- 
ments on  the  principal  to  the  company,  and 
enables  him  to  become  acquainted  with  co- 
operative bank  methods. 

In  consideration  of  this  agreement  the  com- 
pany agrees  not  to  make  demand  upon  the 
demand  note  as  long  as  the  purchaser  shall 
continue  to  make  monthly  payments  of  inter- 
est to  the  company  and  monthly  payments  in 
accordance  with  his  agreement  to  the  co-opera- 
tive bank.  The  company  further  agrees  that 


if  he  shall  die  or  become  incapacitated  within 
twelve  years  — provided  that  at  the  time  he 
shall  not  be  over  sixty  years  of  age  — it  will 
accept  the  surrender  value  of  his  co-operative 
bank  shares  in  full  payment  of  the  time  note. 
The  result  of  this  agreement  is  that  the  pur- 
chaser may  be  assured  that  at  the  end  of  twelve 
years,  or  upon  his  prior  death,  a sufficient  pro- 
portion of  the  purchase  price  will  have  been 
paid  so  that  he  or  his  estate  will  then  own  the 
property  free  of  all  incumbrances  except  a first 
mortgage  for  not  over  sixty  per  cent  of  the  value 
of  the  property,  so  that  at  his  option  he  may 
resort  to  a bank  for  a mortgage  and  be  entirely 
independent  of  the  company. 

The  company  gives  each  purchaser  a schedule 
showing  the  required  monthly  payments.  The 
following  table  is  a reproduction  of  one  which 
was  given  to  a purchaser  of  one  of  the  1915 
houses,  and  illustrates  very  well  the  method  of 
financing  the  purchase  of  an  Indian  Hill  house : 


Your  total  purchase  price  is $3,851 . 50 

You  have  made  a first  payment  of  10  per 

cent 38515 

You  are  borrowing  on  mortgage,  the  bal- 
ance  3,466.3s 

The  amount  due  in  12  years,  secured  by  time 

note,  is 1,000.00 

The  balance  secured  by  demand  note  is.  . . 2,466.35 

Your  monthly  interest  during  first  12  years 

will  be 14.45 

Your  monthly  payment  to  co-operative 

bank  will  be 5 . 00 

Your  total  monthly  payments  during  first 

12  years 19 -45 

Your  monthly  interest  payment  after  12 

years  will  be 10.30 

Total  loan 3 ,466 . 3 5 

Five  per  cent 173 -32 

1/12 14.45 

Demand  loan 2 ,466 . 3 5 

Five  per  cent ’ 123.32 

1/12 10.30 


By  following  the  table  above,  a prospective 
purchaser  may  start  with  the  price  of  any  avail- 
able house  and  compute  the  amount  of  the 
monthly  payments  which  he  would  be  required 
to  make. 

Homes  at  Actual  Cost 

The  purchase  price  represents  the  actual  cost 
of  the  house  and  land  without  profit  to  the 


124 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


company.  The  original  ])urchase  price  of  the 
entire  area  was  divided  by  the  numl)er  of  feet 
in  the  tract  to  determine  the  base  ])rice  per 
foot.  To  this  was  added  a ]>ro  rata  i)roportion 
of  the  cost  of  im])rovements,  such  as  sewers, 
highways,  sidewalks,  engineering  expense  and 
architect’s  fees. 

In  the  case  illustrated  above,  the  cost  of  the 


land  was  $685  for  a lot  containing  6,850  square 
feet.  To  this  figure  was  added  the  actual  price 
of  the  house,  without  profit.  This  included  the 
expense  of  the  building,  heating,  lighting, 
plumbing,  piping,  hardware,  fixtures,  papering, 
window  shades,  screens,  concrete  cellar  floor, 
granolithic  walks,  rough  grading,  finish  grading, 
l)lanting  and  clothes  reel. 


GIVING  THE  WORKMAN  AN  OPPORTUNITY 
FOR  HOME  OWNERSHIP 


By  CUFFORD  S.  ANDERSON 

Jssistcmt  Counsel,  The  Norton  Company,  JForcester,  Massachusetts 


UP  to  the  ])resent,  the  Norton  Company 
has  not  been  called  upon  to  meet  and 
soh’e  the  industrial  housing  problem 
as  it  is  generally  understood.  Many  concerns 
which  have  been  located  in  the  smaller  towns, 
in  order  to  provide  homes  for  their  workmen 
have  had  to  })ractically  create  a local  village. 
Other  industrial  plants  situated  in  large  cities 
have  felt  it  imperative  to  bring  about  an  im- 
provement of  home  conditions  for  employees 
j^reviously  living  in  slums.  We  have  fortunately 
been  situated  on  the  outskirts  of  an  industrial 
city  to  which  laborers  are  constantly  attracted. 
It  is  a city  which  up  to  the  i)resent  time  has  no 
slums.  As  a matter  of  fact,  our  lower-paid 
employees  are  able  to  secure  li\’ing  accommo- 
dations that  are  safe  and  light  and  well  venti- 
lated, and  as  clean  as  the  occupants  are  inclined 
to  maintain  them,  at  a price  commensurate 
with  their  income,  more  readily  than  any  group 
of  our  workmen.  Accordingly,  we  have  not 
set  out  to  approach  the  problem  from  the  bot- 
tom but  rather  from  the  top.  Our  aim  has  been 
to  make  it  easy  for  our  foremen  and  more 
progressive  workmen  to  obtain  for  themseh'es 
homes  of  taste  and  con\'enience,  likely  to  make 
the  employee  happy  and  contented  with  his 
personal  work,  to  improve  his  taste,  stimulate 
his  ambition,  lead  him  to  assume  without  terror 
some  of  the  responsibilities  which  fall  upon  men 
of  all  stations  in  life,  and  to  furnish  for  the  other 


employees  tangible  e\'idence  of  the  thoroughly 
satisfactory  and  worthwhile  things  of  life  which 
may  be  secured  by  diligence  and  industry,  and 
so  stimulate  in  them  a desire  to  make  themselves 
more  useful,  to  improve  their  conditions  of 
living,  and  to  so  win  for  themselves  and  for 
their  families  a bigger  share  of  the  truly  good 
things  of  life. 

Enlightened  Self-Interest,  Not 
Philanthropy 

44ie  Norton  Company  has  embarked  on  this 
work,  not  solely  with  the  idea  of  indulging  in 
philanthropy,  but  from  the  point  of  view  of 
enlightened  self-interest,  considering  the  return 
in  loyalty  and  intelligent  labor,  and  the  prob- 
ably increasing  \'alues  which  are  likely  to  result 
from  the  de\'elopment  of  the  Indian  Hill  com- 
munity. We  ha\’e  gi\’en  our  workmen  nothing 
but  an  opportunity.  The  land  cost  them  all 
that  it  cost  us.  The  houses  erected  thereon 
cost  them  all  that  they  cost  us.  We  have  simply 
furnished  them  the  opportunity  to  buy  a home 
not  only  on  easy  payments  but  at  cost,  an 
opportunity  which  is  not  elsewhere  extended  to 
them.  The  Indian  Hill  community  is  a corpora- 
tion, the  stock  of  which  is  held  by  the  Norton 
Company,  and  was  brought  into  being  merely 
to  handle  more  easily  the  work  of  creating  an 
industrial  village.  The  policy  of  its  board  of 
directors,  which  is  identical  with  the  directorate 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


125 


of  the  Norton  Company,  is  to  administer  its 
affairs  without  profit  and  without  loss.  All  of 
its  activities  are  purely  business;  its  purpose,  to 
insure  to  our  workmen  the  opportunity  of  an 
attractive  home  at  cost,  without  exacting  a 
penny  for  the  profit  of  others,  and  to  insure  to 
the  stockholders,  in  other  words,  the  Norton 
Company,  the  business-like  execution  of  this 
mission  without  a penny  of  loss. 

When  the  village  was  originally  opened  in 
1915,  there  were,  of  course,  many  who  rushed  in 
to  avail  themselves  of  the  new  opportunity,  but 
there  are  residents  on  the  hill  who  have  been 
invited  to  come  there  by  the  company,  families 
whom  we  felt  would  be  leaders  in  the  com- 
munity, and  contribute  to  the  success  of  the 
village  life.  We  have  not  hesitated  to  suggest 
to  certain  employees  that  they  undertake  a 
considerable  financial  responsibility  in  securing 
a home  in  this  way,  for  we  have  found  from 
experience  that  the  appreciation  of  these 
opportunities  up  to  a certain  point  is  in  direct 
proportion  to  the  sacrifices  that  are  rec^uired  in 
order  to  enjoy  them.  Yet  I do  not  think  that 
in  any  case  periodical  payments  are  being  made 
upon  a house  in  excess  of  2 5 per  cent  of  the  in- 
come of  the  residents. 

In  starting  out  upon  our  program  we  were 
fortunate  in  having  right  at  the  very  doors  of 
our  works  an  ideal  site  — a beautiful  hillside 
overlooking  the  waters  of  Indian  Lake,  with 
an  opportunity  for  gentle  grades  and  slopes  for 
the  roads  which  have  been  taken  advantage  of 
to  the  greatest  extent  by  the  architect,  Mr. 
Grosvenor  Atterbury,  whose  services  we  sought 
because  of  his  similar  work  in  connection  with 
the  Russell  Sage  Foundation  and  their  housing 
problem.  The  idea  was  to  establish  here  homes 
which  should  be  substantial,  resistant  to  fire, 
would  not  require  a large  cost  of  maintenance 
and  which  would  combine  taste  with  efficient 
relation  to  the  need  of  the  class  of  workmen 
who  were  likely  to  reside  therein. 

All  Houses  Sold,  Not  Rented 

In  the  very  first  instance  the  comi)any  de- 
cided that  the  relation  of  employer  and  em- 
ployee was  sufficiently  intricate  so  that  we  did 


not  want  to  assume  also  that  rather  difficult 
relation  of  landlord  and  tenant.  Consequently 
none  of  our  houses  are  rented;  all  are  sold. 
We  were  fortunate  in  securing  the  land  at  a low 
price  and  offered  it  to  our  workmen  at  the 
actual  cost  per  foot,  including  the  improve- 
ments, and  built  the  houses  for  them  through 
our  own  hired  contractor.  There  are  five  or  six 
different  styles  of  houses  so  that  that  unwhole- 
some uniformity  that  used  to  dominate  an 
industrial  village  is  presently  lacking. 

H ow  the  Financial  Problem  Was  Met 

The  question  came  at  once,  how  should  we 
finance  our  scheme?  We  decided  that  we  would 
sell  direct,  giving  a full  title  to  the  buyer, 
taking  back  a mortgage.  We  require  of  the 
purchaser  an  initial  payment  of  10  per  cent  of 
the  cost  of  the  house.  He  gives  us  in  addition  a 
time  note  for  12  years  and  a demand  note. 
These  are  secured  by  a mortgage  to  the  com- 
pany. We  require  of  him  also  that  he  take  out  a 
certain  number  of  shares  in  a co-operative  bank, 
and  the  local  banks,  at  the  rate  of  interest 
which  has  been  adopted,  have  brought  about 
the  following  state  of  affairs : that  a payment  of 
a dollar  a month  results  in  a return  of  $200  in  12 
years.  Conseciuently  at  the  end  of  1 2 years  he 
has,  without  making  any  direct  payment  to  us, 
saved  a sum  sufficient  to  pay  off  the  time  note, 
and  that  sum,  with  the  initial  payment,  brings 
him  to  a point  where  he  may  then  look  to  a 
bank  in  the  city  and  have  a first-class  bank 
mortgage  and  own  his  house  under  the  same 
conditions  that  prevail  among  those  in  more 
fortunate  circumstances.  In  many  instances 
the  owners  of  these  houses  are  occupying  them 
and  virtually  securing  the  ownership  thereof 
at  monthly  payments  which  do  not  exceed  the 
amount  which  they  were  previously  paying  as 
rent  for  tenements  in  which  they  never  had  any 
lasting  interest. 

We  built  first  in  1915  twenty-seven  of  these 
houses  and  thirty  more  in  1916.  The  prices 
in  1915  ranged  from  $2,850  to  $4,000;  in  1916, 
from  $3,600  to  $5,200. 

The  cost  of  these  houses  was  16  cents  per 
cubic  foot  in  1915,  and  19  cents  in  1916.  Mr. 


126 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


Atterbury  informs  us,  however,  that  the  same 
house  we  have  been  constructing  was  con- 
structed in  1916  in  Tennessee  for  10  cents  ])er 
cubic  foot. 

It  is  too  soon  for  us  to  tell  what  we  find 
registered  in  increased  loyalty  and  increased 
work  in  the  factory  due  to  this  one  project 
alone.  We  feel  sure  that  the  effect  will  be  to 
attach  the  workmen  to  our  comj)any.  On  the 
other  hand,  we  have  been  careful  not  to  chain 
them  to  the  soil,  ddie  possessor  of  an  Indian 
Hill  house  may  leave  our  employ  and  still  retain 
his  home.  The  })urchasers  of  our  houses  are  also 
free  to  sell,  this  provision  only  being  made, 
that  having  a bona  fide  offer  in  writing  from 


BRISTOL,  PE 

CARROLL  11. 

An  Excellent  Example  of  an  Industrial  Village 
Established  for  the  Housing  of  Shipyard 
Workers  Employed  at  the  Plant  of  the  Merchant 
Shipbuilding  Corporation,  Agent  for  the  United 
States  Shipping  Board  Emergency  Fleet  Cor- 
poration. 

The  Merchant  Shipbuilding  Cor])oration 
was  earh’  to  recognize  the  economic 
fact  that  proper  housing  of  mechanics 
is  a necessity  in  the  stabilizing  of  labor  and 
industrial  progress.  Xo  sooner  had  work  begun 
on  the  great  shi})yard  plant  at  Bristol  than  the 
Corporation  began  to  lay  plans  for  a compre- 
hensive housing  development  to  take  care  of  the 
social  needs  of  its  workmen  and  their  families. 

A building  jirogram  was  determined  on 
which  departs  radically  from  that  followed  in 
many  industrial  developments  where  unsightly 
\'iews  of  dwellings  possessing  no  architectural 
merit,  frequently  not  well  planned,  greet  the 
eye,  and  often  develop  into  slums  in  which  the 
tenants  ha^'e  no  pride  in  their  homes  or  sur- 
roundings. 


another  they  shall  be  prepared  to  offer  the 
house  to  us  at  the  same  price,  so  that  if  we  do 
not  approve  of  the  new  village  occupant  we 
may  take  the  house  over  and  seek  new  residents 
for  ourselves. 

The  increasing  village  life  has  been  inter- 
esting. The  owners  of  these  houses  have 
formed  their  own  improvement  society  and  have 
recently  made  appropriations  for  the  beauti- 
fication of  their  village.  We  feel  sure  that  the 
work  has  been  started  successfully  and  we  look 
forward  to  greater  influence  in  the  future. 

Note:  The  foregoing  is  a reproduction  of  a 
paper  read  before  the  American  Society  of 
Mechanical  Engineers. 


NNSYEVANIA 

PRATT,  Architect 

Temporary  Barracks  Made 
Permanent 

To  avoid  the  waste  and  unsatisfactory  results 
incident  to  construction  of  temporary  barracks, 
frames  and  covering  were  erected  for  buildings 
which  could,  after  their  temporary  occupancy 
by  construction  forces,  be  completed  into  sub- 
stantial and  permanent  form  for  the  ship- 
builders who  would  follow. 

A general  plan  was  then  laid  out  providing 
for  all  usual  and  necessary  community  facilities, 
including  schools,  stores,  restaurants,  churches, 
playgrounds,  and  parks,  as  well  as  various  types 
of  buildings  for  housing  bachelors  and  families 
of  all  classes  of  employees,  from  the  common 
labor  type  to  skilled  mechanics,  foremen,  super- 
intendents and  executive  forces.  This  plan  has 
been  consistently  followed,  and  pro\ddes  for  an 
equitable  and  appropriate  distribution  of  the 
various  tepes  of  buildings. 

Beginning  at  the  northerly  end  of  the  prop- 
erty adjacent  to  the  plant,  on  the  west  were 
placed  the  buildings  to  house  bachelor  laborers 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


127 


Types  “/”  and  “G”  Houses,  Bristol,  Pa. 


J 

.11 

Po^CH 

ONE  HALF  BECOME  FLOOR.  PL/W 


Section  of  Second  Floor  Plan,  Type  “/”  House 


Floor  Plans,  Type  “T”  Houses,  Bristol,  Pa. 
Carroll  H . Pratt,  Architect 


128 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


and  mechanics.  A number  of  these  buildings 
were  the  first  erected,  for  tem])orary  occupancy, 
without  interior  ])artitions  or  finish,  and  tempo- 
rary but  weather  proof  roofs  and  side  coverings 
and  with  permanent  foundations.  These  build- 
ings have  since  been  com^ileted  into  jiermanent 
form  with  practically  no  waste  or  loss,  for  the 
permanent  plumbing  and  heating  ecjuipment 
was  installed  and  little  change  in  this  was  neces- 
sary. 

The  blocks  for  bachelors’  houses  were  laid 
out  with  large  buildings  of  the  boarding  house  or 
mess  hall  and  dormitory  type,  housing  sixty 
men  each,  at  each  end  of  the  block,  with 
smaller  buildings,  housing  twenty  men  each  on 
the  cross  streets  between.  Lavatory  and  toilet 
arrangements  are  conveniently  located  in  each 
building  and  all  of  these  buildings  are  provided 
with  electric  lighting,  steam  heat  from  central 
])lant  and  have  interiors  finished,  painted  and 
appropriately  furnished. 

Community  Mess  Halls  and 
Kitchens 

In  the  so-called  boarding  house,  rooms  are 
placed  on  both  sides  of  corridors  well  lighted, 
and  on  the  first  floor  is  placed  a large  kitchen 
and  a mess  hall  of  sufficient  size  to  procdde  for 
the  men  in  adjacent  houses  as  well  as  tenants  of 
the  buildings.  Recreation  rooms  are  provided 
on  the  second  floor. 

In  the  smaller  units  the  two  wings  of  each 
building  ha\'e  access  to  a central  toilet  room 
provided  with  tubs,  showers,  la\'atories  and 
closets,  and  each  wing  is  arranged  to  group  the 
bed  rooms  around  a central  living  room  in 
which  the  tenants  ma}'  find  recreation  other 
than  sit  in  the  bed  rooms  or  seek  other  less 
desirable  environment.  Seven  blocks  of  these 
buildings  have  been  erected,  comfortably  hous- 
ing 2,000  men,  and  while  the  plans  of  the  two 
t>i')es  of  buildings  are  similar,  considerable 
variation  in  the  exterior  designs  avoids  the 
monotony  which  is  so  common  in  industrial 
developments. 

Southerly  from  these  buildings,  and  between 
these  and  the  open  park  and  playgrounds,  are 
placed  the  apartment  houses  for  families. 


These  are  of  varying  types  of  exterior  design, 
all  two  stories  high,  having  sloping  roofs  and 
exteriors  of  brick,  stucco,  clap-boards  and 
shingles. 

Apartments  each  have  separate  entrances, 
and  have  three,  four  and  five  rooms  each.  Care 
has  been  taken  to  plan  all  rooms  to  be  rectangu- 
lar in  shape  without  irregular  offsets  or  alcoves, 
well  lighted,  conveniently  arranged,  of  good 
size  and  amply  provided  with  closets.  Each 
family  has  access  to  storage  room  in  cellar  and 
all  apartments  are  heated  from  central  heating 
plant. 

On  the  southerly  side  of  the  public  space 
are  placed  the  individual  group  houses*  for  the 
occupancy  of  married  skilled  laborers  and  me- 
chanics. These  rows  of  dwellings,  in  which  no 
more  than  seven  families  are  placed  under  one 
roof,  offer  an  opportunity  for  considerable 
\airiation  in  exterior  design  which  has  not  been 
lost,  for  all  have  sloping  roofs,  and  the  same 
\'ariation  in  building  materials  mentioned  above 
gives  the  completed  streets  an  appearance  not 
unlike  that  of  the  high-class  suburban  develop- 
ment with  detached  units.  Here  again  careful 
thought  and  stud}'  has  evolved  plans  giving 
the  maximum  of  convenience  and  utility  in 
the  four-,  ll^'e-  and  six-room  well  lighted  houses 
which  comj^rise  these  groups.  Finally,  at  the 
southerly  end  of  the  development  and  sur- 
rounding a smaller  park  are  placed  the  single 
detached  houses  of  five  and  six  rooms,  which 
have  been  provided  for  superintendents,  fore- 
men and  executives,  and  which  are  also  of 
varying  plan  and  exterior  design. 

Along  the  main  street  on  the  easterly  side  of 
the  residential  section,  and  between  it  and  the 
plant,  are  placed  the  Administration  Building, 
Commissary,  Stores  with  apartments  over  them, 
Police  Headquarters  building,  Fire  Headquar- 
ters and  other  community  buildings.  Between 
the  street  and  the  park  and  facing  both 
street  and  park  a hotel  is  to  be  placed,  pro- 
viding furnished  rooms  for  single  and  married 
men. 

On  the  westerly  side  of  the  park,  and  facing 
it,  is  the  group  of  school  buildings  proxdding 
rooms  for  elementary  and  high  school  grades 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


129 


Typical  House  Groups,  Bristol,  Pa.,  with  Floor  Plans  of  Type  “J”  4-Family 

Apartment 


130 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


StCO/iP  ^lOO^ 


r/RTT  F/loo/?  Plan 


Floor  Plans  of  Type  F-H-2  Houses  (above)  and  F-H-3  Houses  (below) 

Bristol,  Pa. 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


131 


with  appropriate  assembly  halls,  class  rooms, 
etc.,  and  in  the  rear  of  these  is  located  the 
athletic  field,  offering  opportunity  for  various 
athletic  activities  such  as  baseball,  football, 
tennis  and  other  games. 

The  apartments  and  houses  will  be  rented  at 
from  $13  to  $30  per  month. 

Rent  and  sales  terms  have  been  worked  out 
so  as  to  yield  a fair  commercial  return  on  the 
investment. 


This  town  is  a splendid  object  lesson  to  large 
industrial  communities  as  to  what  can  and 
should  be  done  to  make  their  employees  com- 
fortable. 

Even  greater  than  the  direct  financial  gain  to 
the  company  will  be  the  return  in  the  raising 
of  the  standard  of  self-respect  to  the  workmen 
which  comes  from  living  in  pleasant  homes,  and 
the  better  supply  of  labor  that  will  be  attracted 
and  stabilized. 


THE  GOVERNMENT’S  ADVICE  ON  SELECTING 
INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING  SITES 


RECOMMENDATIONS  COVERING  WATER  SUPPLY,  DRAINAGE,  SEWERAGE 
DISPOSAL  AND  ROAD  IMPROVEMENTS 

Compiled  under  the  direction  of 

JOHN  W.  ALVORD 

Engineering  Divisio7i,  Bureau  of  Housing  and  Transportation,  U.  S.  Department  of  Labor 


General  Conditions  to  be 
Observed 

Drainage. — It  is  important  that  the  site 
be  well  drained  to  ample  depths  required  for 
cellars.  High,  slightly  rolling  or  gently  sloping 
land  at  least  15  to  20  feet  above  an  available 
outlet  in  the  immediate  vicinity  is  highly 
desirable  and  ideal. 

Low  Lands  Available. — Low  marshy  land 
with  no  marked  drainage  lines  is  not  to  be 
entirely  avoided,  because  it  can  probably  be 
developed,  but  at  considerable  expense  for 
grading  or  pumping  the  sewage  and  drainage, 
which  expense  must  be  added  to  the  cost  of 
the  land  and  should  be  kept  in  mind  for  pur- 
poses of  comparison. 

Marked  Natural  Drainage. — Gently  sloping 
land,  with  well  marked  natural  drainage  lines 
traversing  it,  is  desirable,  as  the  cost  for 
natural  drainage  is  lessened  and  desirable  open 
spaces  are  increased. 

Broken  Land. — Very  broken  land,  with 
accordingly  rugged  topography,  all  requiring  a 
great  deal  of  heavy  grading  to  render  it  habit- 
able, is  to  be  avoided  for  present  purposes. 


Desirable  Sandy  Land. — Sandy  soils,  with 
low  ground-water  level  and  good  outlet,  are 
desirable,  although  expensive  to  develop  fully. 
The  disadvantage  of  expensive  black  soil  im- 
portation offsets  in  part  the  naturally  good 
drainage,  dry  cellars,  and  cheap  storm  water 
removal. 

Undesirable  Sandy  Land.—  Sandy  soils  with 
high  ground-water  and  poor  outlet  facilities  are 
expensive  for  the  construction  of  underground 
work. 

Clay  Soils. — Close  clay  soils  are  not  entirely 
desirable,  as  surface  drainage  must  be  largely 
increased,  especially  where  steep  slopes  pre- 
vail. Stiff  clay  makes  for  expensive  pave- 
ments, imperatively  needed,  and  often  cellar 
drainage  must  be  especially  provided. 

Gravel  and  Sands. — Sandy  gravel,  even  con- 
taining some  clay,  makes  an  excellent  site, 
particularly  when  porous  and  combined  with 
low  ground-water  level.  Such  a site  needs  a 
minimum  of  street  pavement  or,  at  best,  inex- 
pensive pavement,  and  the  drainage  system 
will  be  much  cheapened.  Excavation  is  also  less 
costly  than  in  some  other  soils. 


132 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


Sites  Best  for  Streets. — The  topography  best 
suited  for  streets  will  furnish  grades  not  less 
than  0.3  or  0.4  ]>er  cent  and  not  greater  than 
4 per  cent. 

Corporate  Limits. — It  is  important  to  note 
whether  the  }>roposed  housing  site  is  inside 
cor])orate  limits  of  the  municipality  and,  if  it 
is  not,  to  ascertain  possibility  and  terms  for 
connections  with  existing  municii)al  public 
utilities. 

Important  Sewerage  Details 

Coil  fleet  ion  to  E.xisting  Systems. — d'he  avail- 
able outlet  for  the  sewers  must  be  fully  in- 
vestigated. If  this  is  through  an  existing  sewer 
in  a neighboring  sewer  system,  ascertain  if  it  is 
large  enough,  where  it  empties,  and  what,  if 
anything,  it  imperils.  Re])ort  type  of  sewer 
system,  whether  sanitary,  combined  or  storm 
water. 

Xote  approximate  drainage  areas,  direction 
of  flow  and  relative  surface  elevations,  with 
particular  reference  to  the  necessity  for  and 
approximate  size  of  storm  sewers  and  open 
ditches. 

lamg  Outlet.  - - If  long  outlet  sewers  are  neces- 
sary for  connection  with  neighboring  sewers, 
ascertain  their  cost  and  how  this  mav  compare 
with  other  ])ossible  outlets. 

l.egal  Status.-  - Investigate  if  local  sewers  in 
adjacent  systems  can  be  legally  used  without 
payment.  If  ]iroposed  housing  cpiarters  are 
outside  cor]')orate  limits,  can  connection  be 
made  with  sewers  in  the  corjwration? 

Speeial  Assessment  Laws. — .\lways  check 
general  statements  about  the  use  of  adjacent 
sewers  by  consultation  with  the  city  authorities 
and  particularly  see  the  special  assessment 
laws  and  ordinances  by  which  such  sewer  dis- 
tricts were  formed  and  such  sewers  paid  for. 

Constructive  Questions. — Ascertain  soil  con- 
ditions as  to  cost  of  construction  on  the  pro- 
posed site.  Will  the  banks  stand  up  alone?  To 
what  depth?  Quicksand?  Rock?  Ground- 
water? 

Local  Material. — Are  there  local  supplies  of 
building  material?  Lumber?  Cement?  Sand? 
Gravel?  Broken  stone?  Prices? 


Local  Contractors. — Are  there  local  con- 
tractors and  builders?  What  equipment  is 
available,  such  as  trench  machines,  concrete 
mixers,  grading  outfits,  steam  shovels,  teams, 
motor  trucks?  Find  recent  contract  prices  for 
sewers,  paving,  curbs  and  sidewalks. 

Transportation. — What  are  the  railroad 
switch  and  transportation  facilities  for  delivery 
of  material? 

Local  Labor. — Investigate  local  labor  situa- 
tion with  reference  to  available  carpenters  and 
laborers. 

Selection  of  Sewer  Outfalls 

Outfalls  to  be  First  Considered. — As  the  sewer- 
age and  drainage  are  in  many  ways  affected  by 
the  ultimate  method  of  sewage  disposal,  it  is 
essential  that  in^'estigators  should  obtain  the 
data  for  the  j)roper  solution  and  approval  of 
that  problem. 

State  Control. — In  most  states  the  state 
board  of  health  has  control  of  the  sanitary 
standards  to  be  observed,  and  in  some  cases 
they  issue  rules,  directions  and  in  other  cases 
have  well  defined  ]:>olicies  which  it  is  important 
to  know  and  follow. 

Detailed  Approval  by  State  Authorities. — 
Where  state  board  of  health  or  other  authority 
controls  stream  pollution,  it  is  usual  to  find 
that  the  law  pro\ddes  that  it  has  final  approval 
of  all  plans  and  specifications.  This  should  be 
kept  in  mind. 

E.xtension  of  E.xisting  Facilities. — In  local- 
ities where  sewerage  facilities  exist,  extension  of 
such  facilities  is  presupposed,  unless  the  state 
authority  or  good  practice  requires  their  re- 
vision or  rejection. 

Local  Practice. — In  developments  which  are 
contiguous  to  municipalities  or  are  parts  of 
municipalities,  the  practice  and  method  of  such 
municipality  should  be  followed  if  good,  and 
followed  and  supplemented  by  good  practice 
where  desirable. 

Isolated  Developments.  — Where  develop- 
ments are  not  adjacent  to  settled  territory  of 
any  description,  standards  must  be  outlined, 
future  expansion  taken  into  account  and  espe- 
cially complete  information  obtained. 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


133 


Stream  Pollution. — In  general,  streams 
should  not  receive  raw  sewage  from  isolated 
developments  unless  the  extreme  low-water 
flow  of  the  stream  exceeds  about  5 cubic  feet  per 
second  for  each  1,000  of  the  probable  future 
population. 

Provision  for  Future  Tankage. — In  every 
case,  where  possible,  outlet  sewers  should  be  at 
such  elevation  that  sewage  treatment  by  tank- 
age can  be  readily  introduced  in  the  future,  if 
required. 

Outlets. — In  the  cases  of  all  considerable 
streams  into  which  the  contents  of  sewers  are 
discharged,  good  practice  would  suggest  that 
submerged  outlets  conveying  the  normal  flow 
should  extend  out  into  water  of  such  depth  that 
the  sewage  will  be  quickly  diffused  and  not 
easily  observable.  Overflow  at  the  shore  line 
may  provide  for  abnormal  flow. 

Tidal  Outlets. — In  cases  where  outlet  sewers 
empty  into  tidal  estuaries,  special  studies  are 
necessary  to  be  assured  that  freedom  from 
offensive  conditions  will  be  obtained.  In  some 
cases,  where  elevation  is  lacking,  it  may  be 
necessary  to  store  the  sewage  temporarily  dur- 
ing high  tide,  and  in  other  cases  it  may  be 
desirable  for  other  reasons  to  release  the  sewage 
from  storage  reservoirs  on  the  falling  tide  only. 

Partial  Treatment. — In  cases  where  the  low- 
water  flow  of  streams  available  for  sewerage  is 
less  than  about  5 cubic  feet  per  second  for  each 
1,000  of  ultimate  future  population  served, 
treatment  works  should  be  planned  for,  and  if 
the  population  in  the  near  future  requires,  such 
works  should  be  introduced  more  or  less  com- 
pletely, as  circumstances  appear  to  render 
necessary. 

Complete  Treatment. — In  cases  where  the 
sewage  must  be  emptied  into  a stream  quite 
insufficient  in  flow  to  deal  properly  with  it, 
treatment  works  of  a reasonably  complete  char- 
acter must  be  introduced. 

Complete  Plant  for  Extreme  Cases. — No  sew- 
age or  polluted  storm  water  should  be  dis- 
charged into  a stream  used  as  a source  of 
domestic  water  supply  at  any  point  where  it 
may  possibly  contaminate  such  water  supply, 
except  in  the  most  extreme  cases.  When  it  is 


absolutely  unavoidable  to  divert  the  sewage 
from  a stream  used  as  a source  of  water  supply, 
treatment  plants  of  the  most  complete  and  re- 
liable character  should  be  introduced.  A site 
involving  the  above  conditions  is  undesirable, 
and  should  not  be  selected  if  it  is  possible  to 
avoid  it. 

Provision  for  Future  Treatment. — Where  it  is 
likely  that  while  the  present  population  may 
safely  empty  sewage  into  streams,  the  future 
population  can  probably  not  do  so,  space  and 
elevations,  should  be  left  so  as  to  provide  for 
the  possible  future  installation  that  may  be 
necessary. 

ITeatment  Sites  Removed  from  Popidation 
Areas. — Sewer  outfalls  liable  to  require  treat- 
ment plants  should  not  be  located  in  or  near 
thickly  populated  or  residential  property,  if  it 
is  possible  to  avoid  it. 

Long  Outfalls  Avoided. — Long  outfall  sewers 
are  to  be  avoided  if  possible,  where  the  liability 
to  introduce  treatment  works  is  only  a future 
possibility.  Short  outfalls  to  the  nearest  outlet 
may  be  selected,  but  at  such  elevation  that 
intercepting  sewers  to  more  distant  outfalls  can 
be  introduced  when  found  necessary. 

Water  Supply  Details 

Extension  of  Existing  Facilities. — Available 
water  supplies  already  developed  should  be 
examined  in  detail,  to  ascertain  that  they  will 
be  satisfactory  from  the  standpoint  of  (a) 
quality,  (b)  quantity,  and  (c)  pressure. 

W ater-W orks  Information. — Water-works  in- 
formation should  include:  (a)  type  and  capa- 
city of  pumps;  (b)  average  daily  supply;  (c) 
population  served;  (d)  pressure  near  point  of 
extension;  (e)  relative  elevation  of  proposed 
site;  (f)  size  of  main  supply  pipes  to  site;  (g) 
reservoir  and  standpipe  elevations  or  storage. 

Cost  of  Connecting  Mains. — Where  con- 
necting mains  outside  of  the  site  are  not  suffi- 
cient in  size  or  are  deficient  in  pressure,  the  cost 
of  supplying  these  deficiencies  should  be  approx- 
imately ascertained,  if  possible,  and  also  in- 
quiry should  make  known  whether  that  cost 
will  be  assumed  by  the  municipality  or  water 
company. 


134 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


Water  Rales. — Ascertain  whether  water  is 
sold  in  adjacent  territory  by  meter  or  flat  rates 
or  in  ])art  lx)th;  what  these  rates  are  and  what 
policy  the  water  com])any  or  department  will 
have  in  the  matter  of  the  housing  development, 
particularly  if  the  ])ro])Osed  housing  cpiarters 
are  outside  of  the  cor])orate  limits. 

Cost. — Ascertain  whether  the  extension  of 
water  mains  within  the  housing  development 
site  will  be  a direct  charge  or  will  be  amortized 
in  the  rates. 

Pressure. — Find  out  whether  the  pressure  is 
deficient,  whether  new  and  higher  pressure  can 
be  generally  installed,  whether  a high  service 
district  is  necessary,  or  whether  booster  ])umps 
or  storage  will  be  needed. 

Fire  Flngines. — Ascertain  whether  fire  en- 
gines are  used  or  extra  fire  ])ressure,  developed 
at  the  pum})ing  station,  is  used  for  fire  service. 

Poor  Supply  Quality. — Water  supplies  from 
surface  su])ply  unfiltered  are  to  be  looked  upon 
with  suspicion,  and,  generally,  arrangements 
should  be  urged,  if  possible,  for  their  filtration 
or,  at  least,  sterilization. 

Contamination  by  New  Housing. — Water 
supplies  in  adjacent  developments  should  not 
be  imperiled  by  the  installation  of  the  new 
housing  developments  in  such  manner  that  the 
sewage  will  reach  their  source. 

Special  Report. — If  entirely  new  supplies 
must  be  developed,  an  experienced  water-works 
engineer  should  report  especially  on  the  possible 
source  and  the  cost  of  construction  and  oj)era- 
tion,  and  should  show  the  resulting  rates  as 
well. 

Streets  and  Pavements 

Situation. — Note  location  of  the  proposed 
housing  site  with  reference  to  street  connec- 
tions of  the  municipality.  Is  the  site  on  a main 
thoroughfare?  Will  extensive  street  work  be 
required  to  connect  the  housing  site  with  the 
business  and  factorv  sections? 


Soil  anel  Drainage. — As  a well-drained  site  or 
one  with  gravel  soil  may  materially  reduce  the 
necessity  for  expensive  improved  pavements, 
these  features  should  be  specially  observed. 

Grades. — The  best  topography  for  street 
grades  will  run  not  less  than  0.3  per  cent  or  0.4 
per  cent  and  not  greater  than  4 per  cent.  Note 
the  extent  of  grading  required  for  streets  and 
houses. 

Local  Practice. — Observe  the  local  practice 
as  to  types  of  pavement,  street  and  pavement 
widths,  curb  and  gutters  and  sidewalks,  par- 
ticularly where  there  are  recently  built  indus- 
trial housing  quarters  or  new  real  estate  devel- 
opments. Note  whether  alleys  are  used. 

Local  Materials  and  Prices. — For  approxi- 
mate or  comparative  estimates,  note  the  avail- 
ability of  local  paving  materials  and  prices, 
also  recent  contract  prices  for  pavements,  curb 
and  walks. 

Electric  Light  and  Gas 

A good  description  of  the  local  electric  light 
plant  and  gas  company  should  be  secured. 
Have  they  capacity?  How  connected  up  to 
site?  Cost?  By  whom  paid?  Report  on  local 
methods  of  street  lighting. 

Investigate  rates.  Is  there  dissatisfaction  in 
the  community?  Is  it  reasonable?  Or  unrea- 
sonable? Hear  both  sides  to  any  controversy. 
Compare  rates  with  other  similar  situation. 
See  if  there  is  any  reason  for  abnormal  rates. 
Are  rates  governed  by  state  or  other  utility 
commission? 

Is  service  good?  Quality  of  gas?  How  de- 
termined? What  ordinance  requirement? 
Electric  light : Are  there  breakdowns  and 

stoppages?  WTiy? 

Will  companies  finance  complete  installa- 
tion and  authorize  tln-ough-rates  or  expect  cash 
cost  advance  and  rates  accordingly? 

What  contractual  relations  otherwise  may  be 
reasonably  expected? 


HOUSING  RAILROAD  EMPLOYEES 


A COLONY  IN  THE  BLUE  RIDGE  MOUNTAINS  AT  ERWIN,  TENN. 

By  LAWRENCE  VEILLER 

Secretary  of  the  National  Housing  Association 


OUR  usual  association  with  the  housing 
of  railroad  employees  engaged  in  con- 
struction and  repair  work  is  the  typical 
labor  camp  in  which  the  construction  gangs  are 
housed,  consisting  as  a rule  of  old  freight  cars, 
with  the  wheels  taken  off,  set  upon  the  ground 
and  used  as  bunk  houses. 

We  do  not  commonly  associate  with  the 
housing  of  railroad  employees  a Garden  Village 
or  model  town. 

It  has  remained  for  a Southern  railroad,  the 
Carolina,  Clinchfield  & Ohio  Railroad,  to  set  an 
interesting  example  in  this  respect.  Down  in 
the  Blue  Ridge  Mountains  at  Erwin,  Tenn., 
this  railway  winds  leisurely  through  attractive 
hill  country  rich  in  minerals.  Here,  sheltered  in 
a very  beautiful  table-land  enclosed  by  high 
hills  on  three  sides,  is  a little  settlement  in  which 
the  railroad  has  established  important  machine 
shops.  Up  to  two  years  ago  this  settlement  had 
reached  a population  of  about  3,000,  a con- 
siderable growth  in  the  ten  years  since  the  rail- 
road came  through.  Two  years  ago  it  was  like  a 


thousand  other  country  villages,  of  hit  or  miss 
construction,  with  architecture  of  a nondescript 
character  and  with  nothing  to  attract  one’s 
attention  to  it  or  differentiate  it  from  hundreds 
like  it. 

A Little  Community  That  Had 
Vision 

In  the  summer  of  1916,  some  of  the  men 
financially  interested  in  this  railroad,  wishing 
to  develop  the  town  -along  fundamentally 
sound  lines  and  to  provide  for  the  increased 
growth  which  they  foresaw,  called  into  con- 
sultation Mr.  Grosvenor  Atterbury,  the  New 
York  architect,  and  invited  him  to  visit  Erwin 
and  make  recommendations  to  them  as  to  the 
type  of  development  that  could  be  given  to  the 
town.  The  result  of  this  visit  of  Mr.  Atter- 
bury is  a new  Garden  Village  now  springing 
into  existence.  It  required  a good  deal  of 
vision  for  a little  community  like  this,  tucked 
away  in  the  mountains  of  Tennessee,  without 
even  a “cattle  law”  to  keep  the  cows  off  the 


DEVELOPMENT  • FOR  • THE  • HOLSTON  ■ CORPORATION  ^ ERWIN  • TENN 

GROUPOF- FOUR -60R-7R00M -HOUSES 


GROSVENOR  ATTERBURY  • -ARCHT 
NEW-YORKCITY 


135 


136 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


Six-rooDi  House 


Four-room  House 


development  tOR  THE,  HOLSTON  • CORPORATION 

ERWQN  TENN  • 


DEVELOPMENT  FOR  THK  HOUSTON  CORPORATION 
^ 'ERWIN  TENN- 


QROSVENOR- ATTERBWRY*  • ARCHT- 
NEW  YORK.  CITY- 


FJVE-  ROOM  HOUSE 


YORK-CITY' 


EIGHT  ROOM  HOUSE  &.  GARAGE 


' F:P-ST-"LOCR'r:.AN 


Five-room  House 


Eight-room  House  and  Garage 


House  Types  at  Erwin, 


Tenn. 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


137 


public  streets,  to  see  the  advantages  and  pos- 
sibilities in  well-ordered  development  along 
modern  town  planning  lines,  but  these  gentle- 
men had  it  and  this  is  what  has  come  to  pass. 
Already  an  area  which  will  eventually  take 
care  of  30,000  or  40,000  people  has  been  laid 
out. 

The  problem  which  confronted  Mr.  Atter- 
bury  presented  many  interesting  ciuestions. 
In  the  first  place  he  did  not  have  completely 
new  territory  to  work  with.  The  fundamental 
lines  of  the  community  had  already  been  es- 
tablished and  much  of  the  property  was  un- 
available for  the  right  kind  of  development, 
being  adversely  held  by  other  owners.  Not- 
withstanding this,  as  will  be  seen  by  reference 
to  the  general  plan,  Mr.  Atterbury  has  with 
much  ingenuity  and  skill  worked  out  an  ex- 
tremely interesting  treatment,  substituting  for 
the  commonplace  and  unimaginative  gridiron 
plan,  with  which  the  community  had  started, 
an  attractive,  modern  and  scientific  layout 
along  modern  town  planning  lines,  with  curving 
streets  and  irregular  shaped  lots,  combining 
variety  of  treatment  and  harmony  of  design 
throughout. 

As  a result  of  considerable  practical  experi- 
ence, the  curved  streets  have  been  used  prin- 
cipally for  long,  sweeping  boulevards  and 
driveways  and  such  have  been  avoided  in  the 
short  residential  streets  and  lanes. 

The  kind  of  variety  and  interest  that  is 
obtained  by  curving  streets  is  not  essential  in 
the  short,  narrow  streets  where  the  vista  is 
closed  within  a block  or  so. 

Curved  Thoroughfares  Without 
Building  Complications 

The  tendency  in  many  of  the  new  develop- 
ments is  to  over-exaggerate  and  misplace  the 
curvilinear  element,  forgetting  that  where  the 
radius  is  short,  as  is  necessarily  the  case  in 
short  streets,  the  lotting  problem,  and  conse- 
quently the  building  problem,  is  enormously 
complicated  and  considerably  increased  in  cost 
by  irregular  and  curved  plots.  On  the  other 
hand  where,  as  in  this  case,  the  curves  are 
confined  to  the  larger  thoroughfares  which  have 


greater  sweeps,  with  correspondingly  greater 
curves,  this  practical  objection  in  the  lotting 
and  building  is  largely  avoided. 

These  practical  considerations  have  influ- 
enced the  layout  of  Erwin,  as  will  be  seen  from 
the  accompanying  plans.  Of  course,  the  topog- 
raj)hy  of  the  site  is  also  contributive  in  this 
respect. 

The  system  of  main  boulevards  was  laid  out 
to  satisfy  the  demands  of  future  travel  from  the 
three  valleys  opening  out  from  the  townsite. 
The  reservation  and  use  of  a stream  as  a park- 
way along  the  greater  part  of  the  boulevard, 
which  makes  a circuit  of  the  town,  will  preserve 
a very  beautiful  natural  feature  and  supply  a 
large  park  area  for  the  future  town. 

At  the  beginning  it  was  the  plan  of  the  com- 
pany to  sell  the  property  in  undeveloped  lots 
as  rapidly  as  possible.  As  a result  of  Mr.  Atter- 
bury’s  work,  the  owners  reversed  their  original 
policy  after  the  new  development  was  started 
and  said  that  it  would  not  do  to  spoil  the 
proposition  by  selling  unimproved  lots  — at 
least  until  such  time  as  the  entire  development 
had  been  given  a start  and  an  example  set  for 
its  future  extension. 

Determined  On  Controlled 
Development 

It  is  an  interesting  commentary  upon  the 
wisdom  of  controlled  development  upon  a 
carefully  thought-out  plan  that,  from  at  first 
viewing  the  idea  of  any  restrictions  at  all  with 
much  hesitancy,  the  promoters  of  the  enter- 
prise should  have  become  converted,  as  the 
work  progressed,  to  the  belief  that  proper 
restrictions  would  greatly  enhance  the  value 
of  the  property.  They  finally  changed  their 
whole  point  of  view  and  decided  that  they 
would  not  attempt  to  market  unbuilt-on  lots 
and  so  lose  control  of  the  architectural  element ; 
that  they  would  build  no  houses  for  sale,  but, 
instead,  hold  and  manage  them  on  a rental 
basis. 

Obviously  they  do  not  expect  to  build  all  the 
houses  for  a town  of  40,000  or  50,000  people, 
which  Erwin  is  likely  to  become  before  many 
years,  but  they  will  have  given  direction  to  the 


138 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


character  of  the  future  city  and,  as  it  progresses, 
the  same  wisdom  will  continue  to  guard  its  best 
interests  by  wise  property  restrictions. 

In  this  very  attractive  little  settlement,  with 
the  railroad  tracks  and  shops  lying  in  the  fore- 
ground, there  have  been  built  up  to  the  present 
time  from  Mr.  Atterbury’s  designs  some  50 
cottages  of  frame  construction;  some  of  them 
stucco,  others  shingle,  a few  shingle  and  stucco. 
The  houses  are  mostly  two-story  cottages  with 
sloping  roofs.  There  are  one  or  two  bungalows. 
The  majority  of  the  houses  are  detached,  though 
some  are  group  houses  of  an  interesting  char- 
acter of  four  houses  in  a grou]). 

Effectiveness  of  Group  Plan 
Illustrated 

ddie  group  of  houses  known  as  “Holston 
Place,”  illustrates  most  effectively  the  great 
l')0ssibilities,  hitherto  undevelo])ed  in  this  coun- 
try, of  the  group  plan  and  the  charming  results 
that  are  to  be  obtained  in  arranging  houses 
around  small  neighborhood  gardens  or  parks, 
thus  getting  away  from  the  stereotyped  arrange- 
ment of  houses  in  more  or  less  straight  rows,  set 
back  a uniform  distance  from  the  street  and  pre- 
senting an  e.xtremely  monotonous  appearance. 

With  a frontage  of  approximately  350  feet 
the  architect  has  grouped  on  this  i)lot  seven 
houses  around  a very  attractive  small  green 
square.  How  much  more  delightful  this  treat- 
ment is  than  the  usual  one  will  be  seen  if  one 
merely  imagines  what  these  same  houses  would 
look  like  on  the  same  plot  of  ground,  placed  one 
after  another  and  side  by  side  on  lots  50  feet 
wide. 


The  houses  are  of  four,  five,  six  and  seven 
rooms  and  are  extremely  attractive  in  appear- 
ance. 

An  interesting  feature  of  these  houses,  which 
is  applicable  to  other  sections  of  the  South,  is 
that  they  are  adapted  to  the  local  custom  of 
building  without  cellars.  In  such  cases  it  is 
necessary  to  provide  an  additional  room  on  the 
ground  floor  in  the  shape  of  a large  storeroom 
immediately  adjoining  the  back  porch.  The 
rooms  are  all  of  generous  size  and  every  house 
is  provided  with  an  open  fireplace  with  a chim- 
ney and  hearth  intended  to  burn  wood  logs, 
which  are  plentiful  and  comparatively  cheap 
in  that  part  of  the  country.  All  houses  are 
jDrovided  with  bathrooms  and  with  all  modern 
conveniences. 

Fruit  Trees  In  The  Planting  Plan 

There  are  a number  of  interesting  features 
to  this  development,  which  are  quite  charac- 
teristic of  Mr.  Atterbury’s  work  and  which  are 
not  to  be  found  in  the  usual  development.  One 
of  these  is  the  delightfully  quaint  variation  in 
the  style  of  designs  for  decorations  of  the  out- 
side shutter  panels.  Another  is  the  very  inter- 
esting street  lamp  posts  of  wood,  which  Air. 
-Atterbury  has  felt  it  worth  while  to  design  in 
order  to  preserve  a harmonious  development. 
The  planting  plan  has  many  interesting  fea- 
tures, especially  the  utilization  of  fruit  trees  as 
part  of  the  landscape  treatment  around  each 
house.  This  is  not  only  a ^•ery  decorative  and 
artistic  treatment,  but  a very  practical  one  as 
well  — one  not  sufficiently  employed  by  other 
developers.  Fruit  trees  cost  comparatively 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


139 


•GEKERAL-  LOTllNG-PLAN- 
■sections-a-b-c- 

-DEVELOPMENT-FOR-THE-  HOLSTON-  CORPORATION 
-ERMN-  TENN- 


G ROSVXNOR-ATTERaUKY-ARCWnXCT  -AND-COMMUNITY-Pl-AKNER* 
•2p-WEST*4y-*STRI,LT-NEW-YattK.-ClTY- 


little  to  plant;  are  attractive  at  all  seasons  of 
the  year,  and  are  a source  of  enjoyment  and 
ultimately  of  revenue  to  the  occupants  of  the 
houses.  They  are  greatly  appreciated  by  work- 
ingmen and  should  be  a feature  of  every  work- 
ingman’s colony. 

Figures  as  to  costs  of  workingmen’s  dwell- 
ings, as  we  all  know,  mean  very  little  unless 
we  have  at  the  same  time  a statement  as  to 
the  methods  by  which  they  have  been  ascer- 
tained and  the  conditions  under  which  con- 
tracts were  let  and  materials  furnished.  They 
vary  infinitely  in  different  parts  of  the  country 
and  are,  of  course,  different  today  from  what 


they  were  yesterday.  It  is  interesting,  however, 
to  learn  that  a year  ago  it  cost  only  lo  cents  a 
cubic  foot  to  build  these  very  attractive  and 
artistic  cottages.  Of  course,  this  could  not  be 
repeated  in  the  North  and  in  these  times. 

This  development  at  Erwin  is  especially 
significant  as  showing  the  possibilities  of  well- 
ordered,  harmonious  and  attractive  designing 
in  the  development  of  what  is  ordinarily  so 
sordid  a thing  as  a railroad  shop  settlement, 
and  illustrates  anew  the  great  advantage  of 
employing  for  the  development  of  even  the 
humble  workingman’s  dwelling  the  best  expert 
advice  and  direction. 


Window  Shutter  Ornaments,  Erwin,  Tenn. 


BUNK  HOUSES,  BOARDING  HOUSES 
AND  LABOR  CAMPS 


By  A.  E.  OWEN 

Chainnan,  Ca7np  Co^iwnttee,  Peiinsylvaiiia  Railroad 


IN  a corporation  such  as  the  Pennsylvania 
Railroad  Company,  there  is  at  the  present 
time  a large  variety  of  bunk  houses,  such 
as  converted  freight  cars,  abandoned  houses, 
etc.,  but  this  can  be  easily  explained.  When  it 
was  found  that  our  labor  was  suddenly  wiped 
out,  the  most  essential  thing  to  do  was  its 
replacement.  Following  out  various  plans,  it 
brought  to  our  company  a large  importation  of 
alien  labor,  men  who  in  the  main  had  no  homes, 
ddie  cjuestion  then  arose.  How  shall  we  house 
these  men?  dlie  matter  being  entirely  new,  it 
was  quite  natural  that  every  available  building 
and  freight  car  was  the  first  idea;  as,  at  that 
time,  it  was  thought  to  be  only  temporary.  We 
have  since  changed  our  minds  on  this  ]')oint. 
The  result,  however,  was  a variety  of  bunk 
houses,  some  of  which  meet  the  recjuirements 
very  well  and  others  which  do  not.  After 
realizing  that  the  proi^osition  which  now  con- 
fronted our  railroad  com])any  was  approxi- 
mately permanent,  a careful  study  was  made  of 
what  would  be  the  best  kind  of  bunk  house  to 
use,  keeping  in  mind,  hrst,  comfortable  quarters 
for  the  men;  second,  efficiency  and  economic 
construction;  and  third,  general  utility. 

A Standard  Type  Adopted 

Finall}'  a plan  was  submitted,  and  after 
making  many  actual  service  trials,  it  was 
approved  and  made  standard. 

These  buildings  are  of  the  portable  type, 
being  constructed  of  the  ordinary  tongued  and 
grooved  pine  and  built  in  ten-foot  sections. 
Each  building  when  complete  is  twenty  feet  wide, 
with  sloping  roof,  and  approximately  fifteen 
to  sixteen  feet  high  from  the  floor  to  the  ridge 


pole.  The  floors  are  built  about  eighteen  inches 
from  the  ground  on  suitable  piers.  The  entire 
exterior  of  the  buildings  is  covered  with  a 
pebble  dash  roofing  paper.  By  this  method  it 
is  quite  a simple  matter  to  increase  or  decrease 
the  size  of  a building.  It  can  be  stored  quite 
conveniently,  or  may  be  mocked  from  one 
location  to  any  other  location  without  serious 
hardship,  a point  which  cannot  be  lost  sight  of 
in  the  general  economy  and  adaptability  for 
emergency  use. 

In  order  to  conform  to  the  fire  regulations, 
these  buildings  are  lighted  by  electricity,  and 
each  building  is  equipped  with  the  proper  num- 
ber of  fire  extinguishers;  screens  for  windows 
and  doors  are  also  provided.  It  might  be  well 
to  add  that  we  pride  ourselves  on  having 
waged  a successful  war  on  flies  and  vermin  in 
general.  Our  camp  inspectors  are  constantly 
looking  after  this  feature,  as  well  as  seeing  that 
dirt,  grease,  and  in  fact  refuse  of  any  kind,  is 
not  allowed  to  accumulate,  instructions  being 
issued  to  burn  or  bury  all  such  litter. 

It  is  our  intention  to  use  every  effort  to  house 
clean  labor  and  not  tolerate  flies,  vermin  or  dirt 
of  any  kind.  also  follow  this  plan  in  so  far  as 
other  sanitary  measures  are  concerned.  It  is 
not  new  to  me  to  receive  reports  that  baths, 
followed  by  kerosene  and  disinfectants,  had 
been  used. 

Standard  Double-Decked  Bunks 
Used 

A standard  double-deck  bunk  is  used  in  these 
dormitories,  and  each  bunk  is  supplied  with 
two  blankets,  pillows,  pillow  cases  and  sheet. 
The  blankets,  mattresses  and  pillows  are  fre* 


140 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


141 


quently  aired  and  sprayed  with  an  approved 
insecticide,  pillow  cases  and  sheets  are  sent 
to  the  laundry,  and  floors  are  scrubbed  at  least 
twice  a week  with  disinfectant  solution,  and 
mopped  or  swept  at  least  once  a day.  The 
cuspidors  are  cleaned  daily,  and  a disinfectant 
solution  left  in  the  cuspidors.  Wherever  it  is 
possible,  a separate  locker  is  provided  for  each 
man,  which  contains  soap  and  individual 
towel. 

In  each  of  these  buildings  stationary  wash 
stands  are  provided,  hot  and  cold  water  fur- 
nished, and  where  camps  are  sufflciently  large 
and  drainage  available,  shower  baths  are  pro- 
vided. Indeed,  it  is  the  aim  of  our  company  to 
provide  these  facilities  at  the  smallest  camp. 

The  Problem  of  Food 

Probably  the  most  important  point  in  the 
maintenance  of  labor  and  labor  camps  is  food. 
It  is  an  old  saying  that  the  way  to  a man’s 
heart  is  through  his  stomach.  This  is  perfectly 
true  as  far  as  labor  camps  are  concerned,  and, 
even  offering  the  best  that  can  be  had,  our 
turnover  is  extremely  heavy,  and  in  a measure, 
it  is  hard  for  us  to  realize  why  we  should  be  com- 
pelled to  bear  this  burden  of  expense.  We  have 
tried  to  give  our  labor  everything  that  is  good 
and  substantial,  placing  the  men  in  a position 
to  receive  credit,  allowing  them  the  privilege 
of  purchasing  at  cost  clothing,  shoes,  tobacco, 
etc.,  not  saying  anything  of  the  bunk  room  and 
meals,  which  are  practically  donated.  It  is 
true  that  we  receive  a small  amount  in  return, 
but  so  far  we  have  failed  to  realize  a profitable 
showing,  undoubtedly  due  at  this  time  to  the 
high  prices  of  food  stuffs  and  equipment  in 
general. 


In  the  larger  camps  a separate  building  is 
used  for  a commissary  or  store.  This  plan  is 
gradually  being  carried  out  in  the  smaller  camps, 
it  being  understood  that  the  commissary  store- 
rooms are  fashioned  after  the  same  general 
construction  as  is  used  in  the  bunk  house.  The 
kitchens  are  ec^uipped  practically  on  the  same 
plan  as  hotels.  Bills  of  fare  have  been  intro- 
duced, with  menus  listing  an  excellent  variety 
of  good,  wholesome  food.  Good  cooks  are 
secured  to  prepare  this  food  properly,  which  is 
served  by  waiters,  and  a second  helping  is 
permitted. 

Recreation  Rooms  Provided 

We  are  now  gradually  enlarging  our  camps 
to  include  recreation  rooms,  something  to  give 
the  men  an  opportunity  to  amuse  themselves  — 
a central  point,  in  other  words,  where  they  may 
gather  and  pass  their  time  when  not  out  on  the 
tracks.  There  are  various  forms  of  amusements 
provided,  but  as  yet  standard  plans  have  not 
been  drawn  up,  owing  to  the  various  national- 
ities represented,  and  the  different  forms  of 
amusements  required.  However,  it  is  a sub- 
ject which  is  being  given  serious  consideration. 

Our  medical  department  has  also  been  en- 
larged to  look  after  the  general  sanitation  of  the 
camps  as  well  as  the  health  of  the  men. 

Much  could  be  done  to  improve  labor  camps 
if  industrial  business  and  railroads  in  general 
would  co-operate,  each  realizing  that  certain 
responsibilities  are  to  be  assrmied.  Instead  of 
resorting  to  spirited  competition,  a common 

9 

ground  and  agreement  should  be  reached. 
That  would  lessen  the  turnover,  which,  it  must 
be  admitted,  is  very  expensive,  and  destroys 
any  degree  of  stability  in  either  industrial 
business  or  railroad  operation. 


142 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


House  T \pes  <uid  a Home  Interior  at  Flint,  M ichigan 


FLINT,  MICHIGAN 

CITIZENS  HERE  ORGANIZED  A BUILDING  COMPANY  IN  AN  EFFORT  TO  MEET 
THE  HOUSING  NEEDS  OF  A GROWING  TOWN 


A NOTABLE  building  development  along 
wholesale  lines  is  that  of  the  Civic 
Building  Company  at  Flint,  Mich.  This 
is  of  particular  interest  because  of  the  fact  that 
it  is  not  fundamentally  a commercial  scheme, 
the  agitation  for  the  undertaking  having 
been  started  by  the  Flint  Board  of  Com- 
merce in  order  to  meet  the  rapidly  growing 
needs  of  a thriving  commercial  and  industrial 
city. 

In  the  year  previous  to  the  establishment  of 
the  Civic  Building  Company  about  1,500 
houses  had  been  built  in  Flint  along  the  cus- 
tomary speculative  lines;  but  in  spite  of  this 
fact  the  business  activity  of  the  town  was  being 
hindered,  because  of  lack  of  suitable  homes  for 
the  workmen  who  should  have  been  employed. 
The  Board  of  Commerce  therefore  took  up  this 
matter  with  a view  to  working  it  out  on  broad 
lines,  and  the  Civic  Building  Company  has 
been  the  result.  This  concern  is  sponsored  by 
a number  of  the  reliable  and  public  spirited 
men  of  Flint,  and  its  main  purpose  is  not  to 
show  big  returns  on  the  investment,  which  it 
will  not  do,  but  to  provide  a number  of  well 
located, ‘Well  built,  comfortable  and  attractive 
homes  which  people  of  moderate  incomes  can 
buy  on  a monthly  payment  basis. 

An  Entire  Town  Complete 

For  the  purposes  of  this  development  a 400- 
acre  tract  of  land  was  secured  just  outside  the 
city  limits  of  Flint.  The  problem  presented 
was,  therefore,  not  merely  a building  develop- 
ment, but  practically  the  construction  of  an 
entire  town,  including  grading,  the  laying  out 
of  streets,  pavements,  sidewalks,  sewers,  and 
other  public  utilities,  parks  and  playgrounds, 
and  locations  for  churches,  stores  and  public 
buildings. 


The  average  lot  size  is  50  x 100  feet  and  the 
houses  as  built,  including  the  lot,  range  in 
price  from  $2,750  to  $4,000.  The  ordinary  basis 
of  sale  of  these  homes  is  10  per  cent  down  and 
I per  cent  a month  — monthly  payments  being 
so  graded  as  to  include  both  principal  and 
interest. 

About  130  houses  have  been  completed. 
They  vary  in  size  from  17x27  feet  to  24  x 2 7 feet, 
though  most  of  them  are  practically  square. 
As  to  number  of  rooms,  they  vary  from  5 rooms 
with  bath  to  8 rooms  with  bath.  The  plans  are 
all  made  by  the  same  architectural  firm,  Messrs. 
Davis,  McGrath  and  Keisling,  of  New  York. 

Each  house  is  provided  with  a living-room, 
dining-room,  kitchen,  and  bath-room,  and  fur- 
nished with  a hot-air  furnace  with  a water- 
back,  a hot-water  boiler,  a kitchen  sink,  and 
three  bath-room  fixtures. 

Interior  Comfort  First 
Consideration 

The  exterior  treatment  adopted  is,  generally 
speaking,  of  the  old  New  England  village  type, 
with  the  simplest  possible  roof  lines,  close  eaves, 
small  paned  windows,  and  blinds.  Simple 
lattice  work  is  introduced  here  and  there  to 
relieve  the  bald  spots,  and  flower-boxes  are 
used  under  windows  and  on  the  sides  of  the 
porches  to  provide  other  simple  additional  ele- 
ments of  individuality.  It  has  been  the  aim  of 
the  builders  to  put  into  the  houses  the  greatest 
amount  of  interior  comfort  and  value  and 
minimize  on  exterior  trimmings.  While,  for 
reasons  of  construction  economy,  the  effort 
has  been  to  use  a minimum  variety  of  plans,  it 
has  also  been  the  endeavor  to  obtain  the 
maximum  possible  variety  of  effects.  As  a 
result,  twenty-nine  exterior  designs  have  been 
developed,  and  further  variations  are  obtained 


143 


144 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


FIF5T  F\  nof?  PI  AN 


14E31GN]  Noi 


D E S I C N No  3 


SECOND  FLOOR  Pl^ 


5IDE  ELEVATlOM 


5ECOMD  FLOOR  PL>AN 


Design  No  5 


nP5T  FLOOR  PLAN 


Design  No  7 


Elevations  and  Floor  Plans  of  House  Types  Erected  at  Flint,  Mich. 


145 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


by  the  use  of  24-inch  shingles  10  inches  to  the 
weather,  16-inch  shingles  6 inches  to  the 
weather,  lo-inch  siding  and  6-inch  siding. 
These  materials  are  still  further  varied  in  effect, 
in  the  color  schemes  used,  as  follows:  Shingle 
houses  tinted  white  with  green  blinds  and  red 
brick  chimneys,  white  with  brown  blinds  and 
gray  brick  chimneys,  cream  with  brown  blinds 
and  gray  brick  chimneys,  gray  with  green  blinds 
and  red  brick  chimneys,  gray  with  white  blinds 
and  red  brick  chimneys.  Clapboard  houses  are 
painted  white,  cream  and  gray,  with  blinds 
and  chimneys  to  harmonize.  The  roofs  through- 
out are  of  a uniform  weathered  color. 

Where  the  grades  will  permit  a fall  of  level 
from  the  front  to  rear  of  the  lots,  the  houses 
are  set  low  to  the  ground,  having  only  two  steps 
in  front,  with  22  inches  of  foundation  exposed 
in  the  rear,  thus  providing  ample  grade  for 
cellar  windows  without  requiring  the  expense 
of  sunken  areas.  In  other  cases  terraces  are 
formed  across  the  front  of  houses  to  provide 
a low  effect;  and  in  still  others,  the  22  inches  of 
foundation  shows  on  all  four  sides. 

Various  Devices  to  Avoid 
Monotony 

Each  block  of  houses  has  been  studied  as  a 
whole  in  order  to  obtain  a composition  of  roof 
lines  that  would  be  individual  to  itself,  the 
suggestion  of  grouping  among  many  of  the 
houses  being  obtained  by  various  means.  The 
setbacks  from  the  street  line  vary  from  20  to 
30  feet>  and  certain  groups  of  three  or  five 
houses  are  emphasized  by  being  set  back,  while 
the  rest  of  the  houses  in  the  same  block  are  set 
forward.  Other  variations  are  obtained  by  the 
use  of  different  types  of  blinds,  and  also  by 
using  groups  of  windows  differently  arranged, 
with  and  without  blinds. 

As  stated  above,  all  of  these  houses  on  this 
development  at  Flint  are  built  from  twenty- 
nine  plans.  These  plans  are  in  some  places 
repetitions  of  each  other  with  certain  modifica- 
tions, or  with  details  repeated  so  that  the 
multiplication  of  detail  sheets  has  been  elimi- 
nated, and  the  buying  of  materials  as  well  as 
the  construction  simplified.  Data  regarding 


details  can  thus  be  passed  on  from  one  sheet  to 
another,  giving  in  connection  with  each  design 
only  the  details  which  are  peculiar  to  that  one 
design.  Stairways,  for  instance,  are  in  many 
cases  identical ; likewise  cased  openings  and 
colonnades,  kitchen  cupboards,  and  the  like, 
so  that  the  millwork  problem  is  greatly  simpli- 
fied. The  same  also  applies  to  porches,  mullion 
windows,  etc.,  which  are  repeated  a number  of 
times  from  one  design  to  another,  though 
usually  with  some  change  of  location  or  other 
modification,  so  as  to  avoid  the  appearance  of 
repetition. 

Design  No.  i is  a gambrel-roofed  cottage 
with  the  slope  of  the  roof  to  the  street.  It  has 
a width  of  27  feet  and  a depth  of  17  feet,  and  is 
simply  designed,  with  an  entrance  in  the  center 
into  a stair  hall,  from  which  a living  room  opens 
at  one  side  and  a dining  room  at  the  other. 
The  living  room  extends  the  entire  depth  of  the 
house,  and  is  a delightful  room  for  a small  cot- 
tage. It  has  connection  with  the  kitchen 
through  a rear  hall,  and  the  dining  room  is  so 
arranged  that  it  can  be  completely  closed  from 
the  other  part  of  the  house,  allowing  a small 
family  to  economize,  if  desired,  by  eating  for 
the  most  part  at  one  end  of  the  living  room. 
The  upstairs  provides  one  large  and  one  smaller 
bedroom  and  bath. 

Plan  No.  2 is  a duplication  of  No.  i so  far  as 
size  and  arrangement  of  rooms  are  concerned. 
Variety  is  secured  by  extending  the  upper  story 
over  the  lower  in  front,  making  a porch  along 
the  entire  front,  and  by  a different  arrangement 
of  the  second  story  windows. 

Design  No.  3 is  almost  square,  being  22x21 
feet  8 inches.  It  has  a plain  gable  roof  toward 
the  street  without  windows  and  has  the  en- 
trance on  the  side.  This  introduces  an  entirely 
different  floor  plan  with  a reception  hall,  open 
stairway  and  cased  openings  between  the  rooms. 

Plan  No.  4 has  the  same  identical  layout  of 
rooms  as  No.  3 — the  same  framing,  the  same 
elevations,  except  that  the  entrance  porch  is  at 
the  front,  the  entrance  being  directly  into  the 
living  room  instead  of  through  the  hall.  The 
hall  in  this  plan  thus  forms  a sort  of  cozy  nook 
off  the  living  room. 


146 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


flUf  tTLLVATlOM 


DtiiGN  No  16 


Elevations  and  Floor  Plans  of  House  Types  Erected  at  Flint,  Mich 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


147 


Elevations  and  Floor  Plans  of  House  Types  Erected  at  Hint,  Mich. 


148 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


In  Plan  No.  5 we  have  a ])ractically  square 
house  of  the  same  dimensions,  but  with  the 
gable  swung  to  the  street.  The  arrangement  of 
rooms  is  not  much  different  from  the  two 
previous  plans,  except  that  sj)ace  which  in  the 
others  was  devoted  to  a hall  is  here  given  over 
to  a porch. 

No.  6 is  a practical  repetition  of  No.  4,  except 
that  the  gambrel  roof  is  replaced  with  a roof 
of  single  pitch  and  the  house  is  given  a different 
face  toward  the  street.  No.  7 is  a similar  varia- 
tion of  No.  5. 

In  plan  No.  8 is  introduced  the  front  entrance 
out  of  center,  with  the  conventional  type  of 
stair  hall  and  kitchen  back  of  it,  and  the  living 
room  and  dining  room  to  one  side.  The  front 
is  gi\Tn  variety  by  the  small  upper  windows 
under  the  eaves. 

No.  Q is  built  up  around  the  same  floor  plans 
as  No.  8,  but  with  a hip  roof  and  the  addition  of 
a side  |3orch  reached  by  French  doors  from  the 
living  room.  No.  10  is,  with  a few  changes  in 
details,  a practical  duplication  of  No.  8,  so  that 
it  is  not  necessary  to  show  it.  No.  ii  duplicates 
No.  9,  except  that  a gable  roof  is  put  on,  with 
the  gable  to  the  front. 

No.  12  starts  what  may  be  termed  a new 
series.  It  still  adheres  to  a practically  scjuare 
plan,  being  24  x 23  feet  8 inches.  This  is  the  first 
case  of  an  introduction  of  any  irregularities  in 
plan  layout,  as  will  be  noted  in  the  plan  of  the 
second  floor.  The  foundation  under  the  porch 
is  unexcavated,  reducing  the  size  of  the  base- 
ment to  that  extent. 

In  Plan  No.  13  we  have  elevations  and  second 
floor  laid  out  almost  identical  with  No.  12, 
except  that  the  porch  is  changed  to  the  opposite 
corner,  and  the  treatment  of  the  windows  on  the 
first  floor  is  somewhat  different.  The  first 


floor  plan  is  changed  to  a considerable  extent 
as  here  shown. 

Plan  No.  14  swings  back  to  a side  entrance, 
while  No.  15  uses  the  same  layout  with  a front 
entrance  and  the  gable  toward  the  street. 

In  No.  16  we  have  a reversal  and  slightly 
different  arrangement  of  No.  13  and  have  the 
gables  replaced  in  the  front. 

No.  17  is  practically  a duplication  of  No.  12 
with  a slightly  different  room  and  window 
arrangement. 

No.  18  is  the  only  one  of  the  entire  series  to 
depart  from  the  rectangular.  This  is,  too,  per- 
haps the  least  interesting  of  the  designs,  while 
it  is  more  expensive  by  reason  of  its  generous 
height,  and  the  addition  of  a fireplace  and 
other  details. 

No.  19  is  a similar  design,  but  returns  to  the 
rectangular,  introduces  a porch  where  the  offset 
occurs  in  No.  18,  eliminates  the  fireplace  and 
encloses  the  whole  under  a plain  hip  roof. 

No.  20  uses  the  same  design  under  a gable 
roof.  Designs  from  21  to  24,  inclusive,  are 
variations  of  other  plans,  modifications  being 
simply  introduced  to  avoid  monotony  in 
appearance. 

No.  25  introduces  an  additional  room  on  the 
first  floor  which  may  be  used  as  a library,  den, 
or  extra  bedroom. 

No.  26  has  the  same  number  of  rooms  Avith 
a slightly  different  arrangement  and  similar 
elevations,  while  No.  27  goes  back  to  a varia- 
tion of  some  of  the  plans  earlier  in  the  series. 

Plans  28  and  29  are  double  houses  with 
identical  floor  plans,  but  different  elevations. 
It  Avill  be  noted  that  they  are  admirably  de- 
signed for  building  on  a corner  lot,  one  entrance 
being  on  one  street  and  the  other  on  the  other 
street. 


“This  is  the  true  nature  of  home : It  is  the  place  of  peace,  the  shelter 
not  only  from  all  injuries,  but  from  all  terror,  doubt  and  division. 
In  so  far  as  it  is  not  this,  it  is  not  home.” — John  Ruskin. 


MODERN  LABOR  CAMPS  ON  THE  DAYTON 
FLOOD  PREVENTION  PROJECT 


By  ARTHUR  E.  MORGAN 

Chief  Engineer,  Miami  Conservancy  District 


Unquestionably,  today,  in  the 

carrying  out  of  large  construction  pro- 
jects, the  labor  question  occupies  the 
center  of  the  stage.  Now  and  for  some  years  to 
come,  the  question  of  getting  men  to  do  your 
work,  and  of  keeping  them  after  you  get  them, 
is  one  of  the  biggest  single  questions  the  em- 
ployer faces.  Old  conditions  are  passing  rapidly. 
New  demands  on  the  part  of  the  men  must  be 
met,  not  only  as  to  wages  and  conditions,  but 
also  as  to  the  part  the  men  are  to  have  in  deter- 
mining them.  And  among  the  conditions,  that 
of  adequate  housing  for  labor  looms  large.  The 
days  of  tents  and  shacks  — of  unsightly,  un- 
sanitary, inconvenient  camps  — are  gone,  or 
rapidly  going,  on  any  first  rate  job. 

Among  those  who  have  seen  the  thing  that  is 
coming,  and  who  have  taken  steps  to  meet  the 
new  demand,  are  the  men  who  have  directed  the 
policy  of  the  Miami  Conservancy  District;  and 
the  five  camps  they  have  recently  built  in  the 
Miami  Valley  may  well  be  taken  in  many  ways 
as  suggestions  of  what  all  such  employers  may 
sooner  or  later  find  it  best  to  adopt. 

A Flood  Prevention  Project 

This  District  is  a corporation,  organized 
along  drainage  district  lines,  to  carry  out  the 
extensive  project  for  flood  prevention  in  the 
Miami  River  Valley.  Five  years  ago  this  river 
rose  in  one  of  the  most  disastrous  floods  which 
our  history  records,  sweeping  down  the  valley 
through  Dayton,  Hamilton  and  other  cities, 
destroying  hundreds  of  human  lives  and 
property  reckoned  at  a hundred  million  dollars. 
The  people  of  the  valley,  faced  with  so  terrible 
a problem,  girded  themselves  to  grapple  with 
it,  determined  that  nothing  like  it  should  ever 


occur  again.  Government  aid,  whether  state  or 
federal,  would  be  years  in  coming;  might  never 
come.  They  employed  engineers,  and  under- 
took the  project  alone.  All  they  asked  of  the 
state  was  a law  that  would  enable  them  to  go 
ahead  with  it.  They  got  the  law.  The  Miami 
Conservancy  District  is  the  result. 

The  engineers  are  solving  the  problem  by  the 
construction  of  five  large  dams,  to  be  built 
across  the  Vliami  Valley  and  its  tributary 
streams,  behind  which  the  water  in  flood  seasons 
will  back  up,  and  through  which  it  will  be 
allowed  to  flow  gradually  away,  without  damage 
except  temporarily  to  crops  in  the  basins  above. 
The  work  at  these  dams  is  just  getting  well 
under  way.  Some  fifteen  hundred  men  are  now 
employed;  and  this  number  as  time  goes  on 
will  be  increased  to  two  thousand  or  more. 

To  accommodate  these  men  a camp  is  being 
built  at  each  dam.  These  camps  are  now 
rapidly  approaching  completion. 

Camps  That  Are  Modern  Villages 

They  have  been  built,  as  has  already  been 
hinted,  with  a certain  breadth  and  boldness, 
facing  not  only  the  present  labor  shortage, 
but  future  conditions,  local  and  national,  which 
are  to  come.  They  are  not  so  much  camps  as 
suburban  villages,  with  all  the  modern  con- 
veniences, and  in  most  cases  with  facilities  of 
access  to  near-by  cities  by  means  of  railways 
and  interurban  lines,  which  such  suburban 
villages  usually  have.  It  is  expected,  indeed, 
that  they  will  some  day  become  such  villages; 
that  men  will  occupy  them  who  will  work  in  the 
cities,  or  at  gardening,  or  who  will  make  of 
tliem  summer  homes.  Several  of  them  lie  in 
what  are  really  picturesque  and  l)eautiful  set- 


140 


150 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


Germantown  Camp 
Miami  Con- 
servancy District, 
and  No.  3 Type 
Cottage  with  Floor 
Plans 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


151 


E.A5T  Elevation 

Elevation  of  Bakery  and  Butcher  Shop 


(4 


1 'Buhk 

■bUMX.  f 

j BUNK  room  H 

1 5unk 

bUMK  I 

|1  Li  Vi  NG  Room 

BATH  f 

tol 

T>ORCH 

10' 

Four-man  Biinkhouse 


Bakery  and  Bunkhouses,  Miami  Conservancy  District 


152 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


tings,  such  as  might  well  attract  the  growing 
number  of  people  who  prefer  a country  home. 

The  cottages,  in  the  main,  are  of  the  low, 
broad-roofed,  one-story  type  that  fits  so  well  in 
a country  setting.  Simple  in  design  and  inex- 
pensive in  construction,  they  are  yet  archi- 
tecturally well  proportioned  and  conveniently 
planned  for  family  use. 

Five  Designs  In  Cottages 

There  are  five  different  designs,  all  of  which 
are  shown  both  in  plan  and  in  photographic 
view.  They  are  numbered  for  identification 
from  one  to  five,  beginning  with  the  “Number 
One,”  the  smallest  and  least  expensive;  and 
running  up  to  the  largest  and  highest  in  cost, 
the  “Number  Five.”  In  addition,  a “Number 


Six,”  a cottage  bunkhouse,  is  shown,  referred 
to  later.  A table  below  gives  the  size,  number  of 
rooms,  rental,  and  approximate  cost  of  each  of 
the  designs,  set  side  by  side  for  convenient 
com])arison. 

Style  of  Cottage  No.  i No.  2 No.  3 No.  4 No.  5 
No.  of  Rooms  3445  5 

Rental  per  Mo.  $13  $16  $16  $19  $21 

Approx.  Cost  $1,160  $1,240  $1,365  $1,420  $1,465 

That  such  accommodations  were  welcomed 
by  the  men  was  proved  by  the  demand  for  them 
several  weeks  before  they  were  ready  for  oc- 
cupancy. A hundred  and  twenty-five  cottages 
have  been  built  or  are  in  process  of  building. 
(This  number  does  not  include  messhalls,  stores, 
first  aid  cottage  hospitals,  etc.,  but  only  dwell- 
ings.) Most  of  them  are  already  rented. 


Floor  Plan  of  Large  Mess  Hall 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


153 


yroom  Cottage  and  Floor  Plan 


Floor  Plan  of  No.  4 House 


j-rooin  Cottage  and  Floor  Plan 


“'ll 

S 

PHr 

Twelve-man  Bunklionse 


Cottages  and  Twelve-man  Bunkhouse,  Miami  Conservancy  District 


154 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


As  to  the  relative  popularity  of  the  different 
designs,  there  appears  to  be  little  choice.  The 
lowest  in  price,  the  three-room  “Number  One,” 
naturally  leads.  Most  of  the  renters  so  far 
have  been  foremen,  superintendents  or  specially 
skilled  workers.  It  is  exj)ected,  however,  that 
many  later  cottages  will  be  occupied  by  laborers. 

Bunkhouses  For  Unmarried 
Workmen 

lire  cottages  described  are  intended  for  men 
with  families.  For  single  men  bunkhouses  are 
provided.  These  vary  in  size,  being  built  to 
accommodate  eight,  tweh'e  or  twenty-four  men. 
The  general  arrangement  is  the  same  in  all. 
Each  house  has  a porch,  a sitting  room,  a wash 
and  toilet  room  with  shower  baths,  and  sleeping 
rooms  that  accommodate  either  two  or  four  men 
each.  A man  may  have  a room  to  himself  by 
paying  a higher  rate.  Each  bunk  has  a window 
at  its  head  for  ventilation  in  summer.  A floor 
grating  the  entire  length  of  the  bunkhouse,  with 
steam  pipes  below,  provides  heat  when  neces- 
sary. The  bunkhouse  occupants  may  eat  at  the 
camp  messhall,  or  they  may  board  themselves. 

A variation  from  the  above  arrangement  is 
the  cottage  bunkhouse,  accommodating  five 
men  who  board  with  a family  which  occupies 
the  same  house.  Care  is  taken  in  the  design  so 
that  the  domestic  life  of  the  family  is  separated 
as  much  as  possible  from  the  bunks  and  living 
room  of  the  boarders. 

Messhalls  Have  Hotel  Equipment 

The  messhalls,  where  many  of  the  men  are 
already  eating,  will  accommodate  about  two 
hundred  men  at  a meal.  The  kitchens  are 
equipped  with  the  conveniences  conforming  to 
those  of  a good  hotel;  bake-oven,  range,  vege- 
table steamer,  butcher’s  block,  steam  serving 
table,  dish-washing  machine,  and  a small  re- 
frigerating plant.  These  are  not  to  be  looked 
upon  as  frills.  The}'  are  dictated  by  a sound 


dollars-and-cents  policy.  They  are  expected 
to  pay.  Commercial  travelers  flock  to  the 
hotel,  which  sets  a good  table.  So  do  working- 
men. The  road  to  a man’s  good-will  lies 
through  his  stomach;  and  a laborer’s  good-will 
is  a ledger  asset. 

As  the  pictures  show,  each  camp  has  a water 
system.  Pure  water,  obtained  from  drilled 
wells,  and  regularly  inspected  by  the  district 
physician,  is  pumped  through  pipes  to  every 
cottage. 

A Sewer  System  For  Each  Camp 

Each  camp  has  also  a sewerage  system,  dis- 
charging into  a combined  septic  and  sedimenta- 
tion tank  of  special  design  (a  modified  Imhoff 
tank)  and  thence,  if  found  necessary,  over  a 
sand  filter  bed  to  the  local  stream.  With  pure 
water,  sanitary  sewerage,  and  watchful  camp 
sanitation  by  the  district  physician,  the  health 
of  the  men  will  be  maintained  at  a high  level. 
Here  again,  the  policy  is  expected  to  pay: 
Health  is  money,  to  employee  and  employer 
alike. 

Besides  the  water  and  sewer  systems,  electric 
light  and  power  are  supplied  from  a pole  line 
connecting  with  the  Dayton  Light  and  Power 
Company. 

As  to  cost,  a bunkhouse  man  who  occupies  a 
two-man  sleeping  room  with  a mate  pays  fifty 
cents  a week.  He  can  get  a small  room  alone  for 
seventy-five  cents,  or  a larger  one  for  a dollar  a 
week.  The  four-man  sleeping  rooms  also  rent 
for  fifty  cents  a bunk.  Cots,  springs  and  mat- 
tresses are  provided  with  the  rooms.  Bedding 
the  men  must  furnish  for  themselves.  Meals 
at  the  camp  mess  cost  thirty-five  cents  each. 

Besides  the  cottages  and  bunkhouses  men- 
tioned, there  is  in  each  camp  the  usual  store,  a 
first  aid  cottage  hospital,  a community  hall, 
where  public  meetings,  mo\des,  dances  or  other 
entertainments  can  be  accommodated,  and  a 
school  house  for  the  children. 


CO-PARTNERSHIP  HOUSING 
IN  ENGLAND* 

By  HERBERT  S.  SWAN 

Executive  Secretary,  Zoning  Committee,  New  York  City 


CO-PARTNERSHIP  housing  was  in- 
augurated by  the  Ealing  Tenants, 
Ltd.,  in  a London  suburb  in  1901. 
Since  then  the  number  of  co-partnership 
societies  has  greatly  increased.  Today  there 
are  probably  sixty  scattered  throughout  Eng- 
land, Scotland  and  Wales.  The  big  cities  of 
Birmingham,  Glasgow,  Liverpool  and  Man- 
chester all  have  their  co-partnership  tenants’ 
societies. 

A co-partnership  tenant  society  consists  of 
a group  of  tenant  members  and  outside  in- 
vestors who  develop  a tract  of  land  with  build- 
ings, not  in  the  interest  of  an  absentee  landlord, 
but  in  the  interest  of  those  who  are  to  live  in 
the  houses. 

The  houses  are  not  built  for  any  particular 
class  of  people.  An  endeavor  is  made  to  provide 
different  types  of  houses  which  will  meet  the 
wants,  not  only  of  the  working  class,  but  of 
a considerable  range  of  persons. 

In  a co-partnership  society  the  tenant  does 
not  become  the  owner  of  the  house  he  lives  in. 
In  lieu  o*f  acquiring  the  deed  to  a particular 
house  and  lot,  he  pays  a given  amount  of 
capital  into  the  society.  In  other  words,  the 
members  of  the  society  collectively  own  all  the 
real  property  in  the  community.  As  J.  S. 
Nettlefold  puts  it,  ‘‘No  member  can  say, 
‘This  house  is  mine.’  They  can  all  say,  ‘These 
houses  are  ours.’  ” 

In  a non-partnership  society  one  must  either 
buy  a house  or  rent  it.  If  one  rents  he  is  still, 
even  after  many  years’  payment  of  rent,  only 

*This  paper  was  prepared  in  behalf  of  the  Committee  on 
New  Industrial  Towns.  Acknowledgments  for  material  used  are 
due  to  Mr.  Thomas  .'\dams,  Ottawa,  Canada;  Mr.  John  Nolen, 
Cambridge,  Mass.;  Mr.  Frederick  L.  .Ackerman,  New  York  City, 
and  Mr.  Frank  Backus  Williams,  New  York  City. 


a tenant,  and  the  house  still  belongs  to  the 
landlord.  If  one  buys  and  is  later  compelled 
to  move,  he  all  too  often  leaves  an  unsalable 
home  behind  him.  In  a co-partnership  society 
one  can  acquire  the  value  of  a home  without 
curtailing  his  mobility,  as  his  investment,  if 
not  always  transferable  without  loss,  will  at 
least  net  him  as  much  income  as  any  other  safe 
property. 

Co-partnership  in  housing  is  an  attempt  to 
combine  the  advantages  of  both  tenancy  and 
ownership  of  houses.  The  interests  of  tenant 
and  investor  are  harmonized  by  an  equitable 
use  of  the  profit  arising  from  increased  values 
and  the  careful  use  of  property. 

Distinguished  from  Garden  Cities 

Although  all  the  co-partnership  develop- 
ments, so  far  as  town-planning  is  concerned, 
follow  the  lines  of  a garden  city,  they  are  to 
be  sharply  distinguished  from  such  com- 
munities as  Bournville,  Port  Sunlight  and 
Letchworth. 

Bournville  is  purely  a philanthropic  enter- 
prise founded  through  the  generosity  of  George 
Cadbury,  cocoa  manufacturer,  and  has  as  its 
object  the  amelioration  of  working-class  condi- 
tions and  the  provision  of  improved  dwellings,* 
not  only  in  and  around  Birmingham,  but 
throughout  Great  Britain.  The  leases  in  Bourn- 
ville are  for  a period  of  ninety-nine  years. 

Port  Sunlight,  on  the  other  hand,  is  an  indus- 
trial development  worked  out  by  Lever  Bros., 
soap  manufacturers,  along  what  they  call 
“prosperity  sharing”  lines,  for  the  housing  of 
their  employees.  Only  persons  employed  by 
the  company  may  lease  houses.  The  houses  are 


155 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


1 56 

let,  not  at  commercial  rents,  but  for  an  amount 
just  sufticient  to  cover  their  upkeep. 

Letchworth,  the  first  garden  city,  instead  of 
being  owned  by  the  tenants  collectively,  is 
held  by  a private  company  with  a limited 
dividend.  Property  is  leased  for  periods  of 
either  99  or  999  years. 

Operation  of  a Co-Partnership 
Society 

'fhe  method  ado])ted  by  a co-])artnership 
society  in  developing  its  estate  is»  as  follows: 
It  first  secures  suitable  building  land.  This 
land  is  carefully  jilanned.  The  number  of 
houses  per  acre  is  strictly  limited.  Buildings 
are  arranged  to  insure  not  only  healthful  and 
cheerful  houses  but  also  pleasant  surroundings. 
Substantial  houses  of  a variety  of  types  are 
built.  These  houses  are  let  at  ordinary  rents. 
Dividends  on  capital  are  limited  to  5 per  cent. 
.\ny  profits  remaining  after  the  payment  of 
current  expenses,  interest  and  amortization 
charges  on  mortgages  and  loans,  and  dividends 
on  capital  are  divided  among  the  co-partnership 
tenants  in  proportion  to  the  rents  paid. 

Advantages  of  a Co-Partnership 
Housing 

The  advantages  to  the  tenant  claimed  for 
co-partnership  housing  are  as  follows: 

1.  He  gets  a house  at  a rental  which,  if 
internal  accommodations  and  external  sur- 
roundings are  compared  with  what  is  obtainable 
at  most  places,  is  less  than  he  would  have  to 
pay  elsewhere  for  the  same  accommodations. 

2.  He  secures  freedom  from  loss  on  his 
savings  should  circumstances  require  him  to 
leave  the  neighborhood. 

3.  The  capital  for  building  his  house  is 
provided  at  a cheaper  rate  than  it  could  be 
obtained  by  any  other  system  that  is  com- 
mercially sound. 

4.  Should  values  go  up,  he  gets  the  benefit, 
either  by  way  of  a dividend  on  his  rent  or  by 
paying  a rental  which  is  below  the  market 
value. 

5.  He  secures  practically  all  surplus  profit 
after  the  fixed  charges  have  been  met. 


6.  The  benefit  of  the  “unearned  incre- 
ment,” if  any,  accrues  to  the  tenants,  and  not 
to  a ground  landlord  who  has  no  interest  either 
in  the  tenants  or  the  neighborhood. 

7.  The  tenants  as  a whole  can  gradually 
relieve  themselves  of  dependence  on  outside 
capital  altogether  by  accumulation  of  their 
own  sac'ings.  By  gradual  process,  therefore, 
it  lies  with  the  tenants  to  transfer  the  owner- 
ship from  non-tenant  shareholders  who  take 
the  main  risk  to  begin  with,  to  tenant  share- 
holders, who,  it  is  hoped,  may  collectively  be- 
come the  ultimate  owners. 

8.  He  can  invest  at  5 per  cent,  in  the  society 
of  which  he  is  a tenant,  any  savings  he  finds  it 
])ossible  to  make  out  of  his  earnings. 

9.  He  gets  his  house,  with  a small  garden 
attached,  in  a neighborhood  where  there  is 
])lenty  of  fresh  air,  and  the  house  itself  is  one 
with  some  indicdduality  in  which  a tenant  can 
take  i)i'ide,  instead  of  being  an  insignificant 
unit  in  an  interminable  row  of  jerry-built 
ugliness. 

10.  He  secures  a social  atmosphere  which 
awakens  new  interests  and  creates  a collective 
friendship  unknown  under  the  individual  sys- 
tem of  ownership. 

The  outside  investor  benefits  by  co-partner- 
ship housing  no  less  than  the  tenant.  Although 
capital  does  not  pocket  the  profits  in  excess  of 
5 per  cent,  any  surplus  profit  abov^e  that  amount 
affords  just  that  much  more  security  for  the 
continued  payment  of  the  regular  dividends  on 
stock  or  of  interest  on  loans.  It  is,  of  course,  to 
the  interest  of  the  tenant  members,  who  receiv^e 
the  surplus  profits,  to  make  these  profits  as  large 
as  possible  by  taking  care  of  the  property  and 
thus  lessening  the  expenditure  on  repairs,  by 
helping  to  find  tenants  for  empty  houses,  and  by 
punctual  payment  of  rent.  The  capital  invested 
by  the  tenants,  moreov'er,  furnishes  a guarantee 
fund  upon  which  the  society  can,  if  necessary, 
draw  in  order  to  pay  arrears  of  rent.  Loss  by 
arrears  of  rent  is  practically  impossible. 

Co-Partnership  Tenants,  Ltd. 

The  need  for  propaganda  work  and  co-opera- 
tion between  different  societies  led  to  the  forma- 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


157 


tion  in  1904  of  the  Co-partnership  Tenants, 
Ltd.,  a central  organization  which  some  fifteen 
societies  have  now  joined.  In  promoting  the 
development  of  co-partnership  societies,  the 
Co-partnership  Tenants,  Ltd.,  provides  expert 
advice  as  to  the  best  methods  in  obtaining, 
laying  out,  and  developing  estates;  assists  in 
raising  the  necessary  capital  for  its  federated 
societies;  and  facilitates  the  pooling  of  orders 
where  practicable,  so  that  the  benefits  of  whole- 
sale cash  dealing  in  building  and  other  materials 
are  secured.  It  also  inspects  all  accounts  and 
books  of  the  several  associated  societies,  to 
insure  a reliable  administration  of  the  estates. 

The  rapidity  with  which  co-partnership 
housing  has  grown  is  shown  in  the  foregoing 
statistics  of  the  societies  federated  with  the 
central  organization.  The  data  for  the  societies 
not  associated  with  Co-partnership  Tenants, 
Ltd.,  are  unfortunately  not  available. 

By  January  i,  1917,  these  fifteen  societies 
had  erected  a total  of  3,702  houses.  The  char- 
acter of  these  developments  is  suggested  to 
some  extent  by  the  number  of  houses  rented  at 
different  weekly  rents. 


Weekly  Rent  Number  of  Houses 

Below  $1.50 643 

From  $1.50  and  below  $2.00 91 1 

From  $2.00  and  below  $2.50 i,oii 

From  $2.50  and  below  $3.00 564 


From  $3.00  and  below  $3.75 236 

From  $3.75  and  below  $5.00 109 

Over  $5.00 228 


Total 3)702 


Dividends  on  Rent 

Some  societies  distribute  the  rent  dividend 
among  all  the  tenants.  Other  societies  dis- 
tribute it  only  among  the  tenant  investors. 
In  the  latter  case,  the  share  of  each  tenant  who 
is  not  an  investor  is  carried  to  the  reserve  fund. 
The  dividend  on  rent,  like  the  dividend  on 
capital,  is  sometimes  limited.  Thus  Avon- 
mouth  limits  the  amount  of  the  rent  dividend 
to  10  per  cent  of  the  rent  paid.  Permanent 
tenancy  is  in  some  instances  encouraged  by 
adjusting  the  dividend  to  the  aggregate  amount 
of  rent  paid  by  the  tenants  during  the  period 
that  they  have  respectively  been  tenants. 

Members  in  arrears  with  their  subscriptions 
or  installments  enjoy  no  bonuses.  Their  rent 
dividends  are  forfeited  to  the  reserve  fund. 

The  rent  dividend,  instead  of  being  paid  in 
cash  to  the  tenant,  is  generally  credited  to  his 
account  until  it  equals  either  the  minimum 
amount  of  his  expected  investment  or  the  value 
of  the  dwelling  he  occupies.  After  a tenant  has 
fulfilled  all  his  obligations  to  the  society  as  an 
investor,  he  receives  his  rent  dividend  in  cash. 


Name  of  Society 

Date  of 

Area 

Area  of 
Open  Places 

No.  of  Houses 
When 

Value  of  Land 
and  Buildings 

Estimated  Cost 
of  Estate  when 

Organization  (Acres) 

(Acres) 

Completed 

Jan. 1/17 

Completed 

Ealing  Tenants,  Ltd.,  London 

1901 

62 

13 

700 

$1,281,500 

$1,500,000 

Anchor  Tenants,  Ltd.,  Leicester 

1907 

48 

4 

350 

169,625 

750,000 

Manchester  Tenants,  Ltd 

1908 

1 1 

2 

136* 

281,565 

281,565 

Fallings  Park  Garden  Suburb  Tenants, 

Ltd.,  Wolverhampton 

1907 

6 

I 

75* 

98,500 

100,000 

Garden  City  Tenants,  Ltd 

1905 

39 

6X 

323* 

493,900 

494,000 

Derwentwater  Tenants,  Ltd 

1909 

2X 

iX 

27* 

33,775 

37,500 

Liverpool  Garden  Suburb  Tenants,  Ltd . 

1910 

58 

8 

600 

700,000 

1,100,000 

Sevenoaks  Tenants,  Ltd 

1904 

6 

iX 

80* 

120,175 

120,675 

Harborne  Tenants,  Ltd 

1907 

53 

3 

500* 

873,750 

875,000 

Stoke-on  Trent,  Ltd 

1910 

38 

3 

412 

220,000 

600,000 

Hampstead  Tenants,  Ltd 

1907 

724,335 

Second  Hampstead  Tenants,  Ltd 

1909 

1,473,060 

Hampstead  Heath  Extension  Tenants, 

471 

47 

5,650 

9,185,000 

Ltd 

1912 

841,610 

Oakwood  Tenants,  Ltd 

1913 

793,840 

Rudheath  Tenants,  Ltd 

1916 

10 

iX 

130 

70,000 

135,000 

Fifteen  Societies 

804X 

9IX 

8,983 

^8,175,635 

$15, 178,740 

Houses  all  built. 


158 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


Legal  Limitations 

Co-])artnership  tenant  societies  are  registered 
under  the  Industrial  and  Provident  Societies 
Act,  1893,  as  “Public  Utility  Societies.”  This 
act  lays  down  certain  broad  fundamental  prin- 
ciples that  control  the  policy  of  all  co-]:>artner- 
shij)  societies.  In  the  first  place,  it  prohibits 
the  i)ayment  of  any  interest  or  dividend  in 
e.xcess  of  5 per  cent  per  annum.  In  the  second 
place,  it  prevents  any  individual,  whether  ten- 
ant or  not,  from  holding  shares  worth  more 
than  $1,000.  This  restriction,  however,  does 
not  apply  to  outside  societies.  One  co-partner- 
ship society  may  purchase  securities  issued  by 
another  co-jiartnershij)  society,  dliere  is  no 
limit  on  the  amount  of  stock  that  an  outside 
society  may  hold. 

Subject  to  these  two  general  conditions,  each 
society  finances  its  ojierations  in  its  own  man- 
ner. The  necessary  cajiital  is  obtained  in  a 
variety  of  ways.  Some  societies  raise  all  their 
funds  through  the  sale  of  common  stock 
(shares),  the  issuance  of  bonds  (loan  stock), 
and  the  flotation  of  mortgages.  Other  societies, 
in  addition  to  issuing  bonds  and  floating 
mortgages,  sell  both  preferred  (either  co- 
partnership or  tenants’  investment  stock)  and 
common  stock.  Although  there  is  a limit  upon 
the  amount  of  stock  which  an  individual  may 
own,  there  is  no  limit  upon  the  amount  which 
he  may  invest  in  bonds  or  mortgages. 

Government  Loans 

-V  portion  of  the  capital  used  in  developing 
the  co-partnership  societies  has  been  secured 
from  the  national  government. 

The  first  societies  found  that  it  reciuired  much 
effort  and  costly  advertising  to  obtain  the  neces- 
sary capital.  These  expenses  greatly  increased 
the  cost  of  the  houses.  'Fhe  Housing  and  Town 
Planning  Act  of  1909,  therefore,  authorized 
the  Public  Works  Loans  Commissioners  to 
grant  loans  to  Public  Lftility  Societies  for 
housing  ])urposes  up  to  two-thirds  of  the 
value  of  the  houses  and  land,  after  the  houses 
are  built. 

Even  before  the  war  put  a stop  to  practically 
all  pri^'ate  building,  there  was  considerable 


agitation  to  have  the  percentage  of  extended 
government  credit  increased.  As  the  repay- 
ment of  the  loan  would  commence  in  the  first 
year,  and  as  the  houses,  if  properly  constructed, 
would  last  much  longer  than  the  thirty  or  forty 
years  for  which  the  loans  were  made,  it  was 
claimed  that  the  government’s  security  would 
improve  each  year.  The  risk  of  loss  in  making 
loans  to  a number  of  societies  scattered  all 
over  the  country  would  moreover  be  less  than 
if  the  loans  were  confined  to  a single  town. 
While  houses  in  a given  town  might  depreciate 
in  value,  this  would  not  be  so  likely  to  happen 
in  many  towns  at  the  same  time.  The  national 
advantage  of  having,  scattered  throughout  the 
country,  building  estates  laid  out  in  accordance 
with  the  latest  and  best  methods  of  develop- 
ment, and  covered  with  houses  that  would  set  a 
high  standard  for  other  builders  in  the  neigh- 
borhood, was  also  stressed,  the  claim  being 
made  that  the  general  standard  of  building 
had  frequently  been  raised  in  the  vicinity  of 
tracts  developed  by  co-partnership  societies. 

The  emergency  created  by  the  war  seems  to 
have  been  more  potent  than  all  these  arguments. 
At  any  rate,  shortly  after  the  outbreak  of  the 
war  in  1914,  the  amount  of  government  credit 
that  might  be  loaned  to  these  societies  was 
increased  to  90  per  cent. 

Before  the  war,  the  government  money  was 
loaned  at  an  interest  rate  of  3^/^  per  cent  if 
repaid  in  30  years  and  at  3^  per  cent  if  repaid 
in  40  years.  Since  the  outbreak  of  the  war  these 
rates  have  been  increased  to  4 and  4^  per  cent 
respectively.  The  combined  interest  and  sink- 
ing fund  charge  at  present  is  5.78  per  cent  if 
repaid  in  30  years,  5.43  per  cent  if  repaid  in 
40  years. 

Tenants’  Investments 

Although  non-tenants  as  well  as  tenants  may 
become  investors  in  a co-partnership  society, 
the  aim  is  gradually  to  repay  the  capital  in- 
vested from  the  outside  so  that  the  estate  may 
become  increasingly  the  property,  if  not  the 
sole  property,  of  the  tenants.  The  rules  govern- 
ing the  investments  that  must  be  made  by  the 
tenants  to  attain  this  object  are  very  precise.  A 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


159 


few  illustrations  at  this  point  may  not  be  amiss. 
At  Avonmouth,  for  instance,  each  member 
of  the  society,  tenant  or  non-tenant,  must  hold 
at  least  one  share  of  common  stock  worth  $25. 
In  addition  to  this,  every  intending  tenant 
must,  unless  he  makes  arrangements  to  the 
contrary,  apply  for  an  amount  of  preferred 
(tenants’  investment  stock)  equal  to  not  less 
than  one  year’s  rent  of  the  house  he  expects  to 
occupy.  An  amount  of  preferred  stock  equal 
to  at  least  one-sixth  of  the  year’s  rent  must  be 
paid  in  full  on  the  allotment  of  the  stock  and 
before  the  commencement  of  tenancy.  There- 
after he  must  pay  for  the  preferred  stock 
allotted  to  him,  and  from  time  to  time  to  be 
allotted  to  him,  in  such  installments  as  the 
management  may  stipulate  when  the  allot- 
ment is  made. 

To  begin  with,  the  two  original  Hampstead 
societies  obliged  the  tenant  to  buy  stock.  But 
this  requirement  was,  however,  changed  in 
1910.  Since  that  date  each  tenant  investor  has 
been  expected  ultimately  to  purchase  bonds 
(loan  stock)  to  the  amount  of  $250,  or  two 
years’  rent  of  the  house  occupied,  whichever  is 
the  greater.  The  amount  of  bonds  that  a 
tenant  must  take  up  is  subject  to  modification 
by  the  management,  but  no  change  can  be 
retrospective. 

The  Oakwood  Tenants  permit  the  lessee  to 
invest  in  either  bonds  or  in  preferred  stock, 
as  he  may  determine.  If  he  invests  in  bonds, 
it  must  be  for  not  less  than  $250  or  a sum 
equal  to  two  years’  rent,  whichever  is  the 
greater.  * If  he  invests  in  preferred  stock,  it, 
too,  must  be  equal  to  at  least  two  years’ 
rent,  but  on  the  payment  of  this  amount  he 
may  be  required  from  time  to  time  to  apply 
for  additional  preferred  stock  equal  to  one 
year’s  rent,  until  a sum  equal  to  ten  times  the 
rent  of  the  house  he  first  occupied  has  been 
reached.  If  bonds  are  subscribed  for,  they  must 
be  paid  for  in  full  on  allotment;  if  preferred 
stock,  $25  on  allotment  and  $15  a year,  or  10 
per  cent  of  the  yearly  rent,  whichever  is  the 
greater,  in  monthly  installments. 

The  Fallings  Park  Tenants  expect  every 
non-tenant  member  to  subscribe  for  at  least 


$100  worth  of  stock;  every  tenant  member  for 
at  least  $250  worth  of  stock. 

This  stock  need  not  be  subscribed  for  at 
once,  nor  does  it  have  to  be  fully  paid  for  at 
the  time  of  allotment.  The  first  $5  worth,  it 
is  true,  must  be  paid  in  cash,  but  $15  a year, 
in  equal  monthly  installment,  is  all  that  is 
required  in  the  way  of  payment  for  the  first 
$50  worth  of  stock  taken.  When  this  sum  has 
been  fully  paid  up,  the  annual  amount  demand- 
ed during  the  year  in  equal  monthly  install- 
ments is  reduced  to  $7.50.  Installments  may 
be  paid  in  anticipation  of  their  becoming  due. 
Fines  are  imposed  on  arrears  to  secure  prompt 
payment  of  installments. 

Proportion  of  Stock  to  Bonds 

The  proportion  of  stock  issued  to  bonds  has 
become  a very  practical  question.  As  stock 
generally  pays  a dividend  of  five  per  cent,  and 
bonds  an  interest  rate  varying  from  four  per 
cent  to  four  and  one-half  per  cent,  it  is  obvious 
that  the  average  carrying  charge  on  capital 
will  vary  according  to  the  relative  amount  of 
stock  sold.  If  much  stock  is  issued,  the  carry- 
ing charge  will  be  comparatively  high;  if  little 
stock  is  issued,  comparatively  low.  The  ten- 
ants, of  course,  gain  by  having  the  interest  and 
dividend  charges  on  capital  kept  down  to  the 
lowest  possible  figure : the  smaller  the  dividends 
on  invested  capital,  the  more  they  receive  in 
the  way  of  dividends  on  rent.  One-quarter  of 
one  per  cent  more  or  less  on  capital  may  in  some 
instances  mean  all  the  difference  between  no 
dividend  at  all  or  one  of  ten  per  cent  on  rent. 
Every  increase  in  the  capital  charges,  no  matter 
how  slight,  makes  serious  inroads  upon  the 
rent  dividends. 

The  following  statistics  show  the  amount  of 
capital  raised  from  different  sources  by  three 
of  the  co-partnership  tenant  societies: 

The  Oakwood  Tenants,  Ltd.,  had  assets  on 
January  i,  1917,  valued  at  approximately 
$860,000.  Of  this  amount  about  $105,000  was 
represented  by  common  stock,  $36,000  by 
preferred  stock,  $178,000  by  bonds,  and  $541,- 
000  by  mortgages,  unsecured  loans,  reserve 
funds  and  other  items. 


160 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


'riie  Hampstead  Tenants,  Ltd.,  had  assets 
on  January  i,  1917,  valued  at  about  $760,- 
000.  Of  this  amount  approximately  $133,000 
was  represented  by  common  stock,  $202,000 
by  bonds,  and  $425,000  by  mortgages,  un- 
secured loans,  and  the  like. 

d'he  Second  Hampstead  Tenants,  Ltd.,  had 
assets  on  January  i,  1917,  with  a book  value 
in  the  neighborhood  of  $1,515,000.  Of  this 
sum  $300,000  was  rej)resentcd  by  common 
stock,  $395,000  by  bonds,  and  $765,000  by 
mortgages. 

The  accompanying  table  shows  how  many 
jrersons  held  different  amounts  of  the  out- 
standing common  stock,  preferred  stock,  and 
bonds  in  these  three  societies  at  the  beginning 
of  1917. 

Number  of  Persons  Owning 
Different  Amounts 

I.  Common  Stock. 

Second 

Hampstead  Hampstead  Oakwood 


Site  of  Holding 

Tenants, 

Ltd. 

Tenants, 

Ltd. 

Tenants, 

Ltd. 

Under  $,0 

I 

Over  $50  to  $125 

43 

27 

Over  $125  to  $250 . . . . 

127 

99 

3 

Over  $2^0  to  $500.  . . . 

29 

19 

2 

Over  $500  to  $750.  . . . 

9 

4 

Over  $750  to  $1,000  . . 

9 

8 

4 

Over  $1,000 

I 

I 

I 

Total 

212 

158 

10 

2.  Preferred  Stock 

Under  $50 

4 

Over  $50  to  $125 

14 

Over  $125  to  $250,  . . 

no 

Over  $250  to  $500.  . . 

30 

Over  $500  to  $750.  . . 

4 

Over  $750  to  $1,000  . 

7 

Over  $1,000 

9 

Total 

3- 

Bonds 

178 

Under  $50 

17 

130 

4 

Over  $50  to  $125  ...  . 

44 

172 

14 

Over  $125  to  $250.  . . 

49 

119 

no 

Over  $250  to  $500.  . . 

32 

50 

30 

Over  $500  to  $750.  . . 

6 

17 

4 

Over  $750  to  $1,000.  . 

8 

20 

7 

Owr  $1,000 

13 

19 

9 

— 

— 

— 

Total 

169 

527 

178 

Payment  on  Installment  Plan 

No  matter  in  what  the  tenant  is  obliged  to 
invest  his  money,  whether  it  be  common  stock, 
preferred  stock  or  bonds,  it  is  customary  to 
allow  him  to  pay  it  either  in  full  or  in  install- 
ments. Whichever  method  he  chooses,  the 
interest  or  dividend  he  receives  is  on  the  amount 
paid  up.  If  he  pays  the  full  amount  in  cash,  he 
receives  his  interest  in  cash;  if  he  pays  in 
installments  the  interest,  instead  of  being  paid 
to  him  in  cash,  is  credited  to  him  on  his  unpaid 
balance.  The  dividend  on  stock  is  5 per  cent, 
and  the  interest  rate  on  bonds  in  sums  of  less 
than  $250  is  usually  4 per  cent;  on  bonds  in 
sums  of  $250,  and  upward,  usually  4j^  per  cent. 
The  increased  interest  rate  on  large  amounts 
is  to  encourage  speedy  payment  of  the  required 
minimum. 

Retirement  of  Outside  Capital 

Provision  for  paying  off  the  excess  stock  held 
by  shareholders  beyond  a limit  fixed  by  the 
society  from  time  to  time  is  made,  in  some 
instances,  for  the  purpose  of  facilitating  the 
retirement  of  outside  capital.  The  charge  has 
been  made  that  the  Co-partnership  Tenants, 
Ltd.,  has  attempted  to  subvert  the  co-partner- 
ship principle  by  contriving  to  get  a preponde- 
rant voting  })ower  in  its  affiliated  societies. 
Such  control  as  it  has  was  achieved  through  its 
financial  operations.  It  borrows  money  by 
issuing  stock  to  outside  investors,  and  investing 
the  money  so  obtained  in  these  societies.  Its 
investors  are  not  known  to  the  tenants;  their 
names  and  addresses  are  known  only  to  the 
central  organization.  It  is  felt  that  there  is 
little  hope,  therefore,  that  they  will  be  able  to 
see  things  from  the  tenant’s  point  of  view. 
They  vote  solidly  for  the  policy  of  the  central 
society,  whatever  that  may  be,  so  long  as  they 
are  satisfied  with  its  management  of  their  in- 
vestments. 

These  fears  have  apparently  not  been  alto- 
gether without  some  ground.  In  the  Oakwood 
Tenants,  Ltd.,  for  instance,  the  Co-partnership 
Tenants,  Ltd.,  on  January  i,  1917,  owned 
$100,000  of  the  $105,750  worth  of  common  stock 
issued.  In  the  Second  Hampstead  Society,  on 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


161 


the  same  date,  it  owned  $255,550  worth  of  the 
$299,940  worth  of  stock  issued.  To  allay  this 
criticism,  the  Co-partnership  Tenants  Ltd., 
has  agreed  to  transfer  capital  to  the  tenants  in 
proportion  to  its  own  holdings  in  the  society  — 
about  $50  worth  of  stock  to  a $100  worth  of 
bonds.  Under  this  arrangement,  every  tenant 
will  have  the  opportunity  to  become  a partner 
by  investing  the  same  proportion  of  money  in 
stock  and  bonds  as  the  promoting  partners. 

Society  has  First  Lien  on  Tenants’ 
Investments 

The  society  generally  has  a lirst  lien  upon  the 
investment  of  any  member  for  debts  due  it  by 
him.  Any  sum  credited  to  a member  may  be 
set  off  toward  the  payment  of  such  debts. 

Repairs,  Exterior  and  Interior 

All  exterior  or  structural  repairs  are,  as  a 
rule,  charged  against  the  society.  Interior 
repairs  are,  however,  done  by  and  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  tenant  to  the  satisfaction  of  the 
management.  When  interior  repairs  have,  in 
the  opinion  of  the  management,  become  neces- 
sary, it  may  order  them  to  be  done.  If  the 
repairs  are  not  paid  for  on  demand  by  the 
tenant,  the  society  may  deduct  their  cost  from 
any  sum  credited  to  the  tenant’s  investment 
account. 

Ejectment  of  Tenant 

If  a tenant  becomes  an  impossible  neighbor, 
the  management  may  give  him  notice  to  quit 
his  house,  repay  the  amount  of  his  investment, 
and  end  his  relation  to  the  society. 

Transfer  of  Investments 

When  a stockholder  ceases  to  be  a tenant, 
the  society  has  the  right  to  buy  back  his  stock. 
In  the  event  of  the  society  being  unwilling  to 
exercise  this  privilege  the  stockholder  may 
transfer  his  stock,  subject  to  the  approval  of 
the  management,  to  any  other  member  of  the 
society.  If  the  transferee  is  not  a member,  he 
must  hrst  be  approved  of  as  such  by  the 
management  before  the  transfer  can  be  regis- 
tered. The  society  usually  obligates  itself  to 


repay  the  whole  sum  credited  to  a member 
where  it  refuses  to  sanction  its  transfer.  This 
obligation,  however,  does  not  apply  to  members 
so  long  as  they  remain  tenants  of  the  so- 
ciety. 

Considerations  Affecting  Control 
of  Society 

In  certain  societies  all  the  tenants  are  re- 
cpired  to  be  shareholders;  in  others  they  have 
to  be  bondholders;  and  in  still  others  they  are 
obliged  to  be  both  shareholders  and  bond- 
holders. In  some  cases,  provision  is  made  to 
admit  as  tenants  persons  who  are  neither 
shareholders  nor  bondholders  subject  to  the 
condition  that  they  make  a minimum  deposit. 
The  detail  requirements  in  this  respect  are 
conditioned  by  various  considerations. 

Sometimes  it  may  not  be  desired  to  vest  too 
large  a degree  of  self-government  in  the  hands 
of  the  tenants.  In  such  a case  the  shareholders 
would  probably  control  the  management,  and 
the  tenants,  instead  of  being  encouraged  to 
buy  stock,  would  be  forced  to  acquire  bonds. 
In  other  words,  the  tenants  would  be  persuaded 
to  acquire  a financial  stake  in  the  society  with- 
out at  the  same  time  obtaining  a voice,  or  at 
least  a controlling  voice,  in  its  management. 

The  views  of  Henry  Vivian  are  especially 
interesting  on  this  point. 

“Tenants’  co-partnership  or  labor  co-partner- 
ship,” he  says,  “is  not  a fixed  system;  it  is  an 
attempt  to  embody  into  a working  contract, 
expressed  in  rules,  articles  of  association,  or 
agreements,  the  idea  of  unity  of  interests.  The 
terms  of  the  partnership  will  vary  without  end 
under  different  circumstances.  The  adoption 
of  co-partnership  by  any  business  and  its  work- 
men does  not  necessarily  mean  that  the  busi- 
ness will  in  the  future  hand  the  management  of 
its  affairs  over  to  its  workmen.  In  most  cases, 
any  one  with  the  slightest  experience  in  business 
affairs  knows  that  before  very  long  there  would 
be  no  business  to  manage.  Nor  does  tenants’ 
co-partnership  necessarily  mean  that  the  busi- 
ness of  estate  development  involves  handing 
the  management  of  estates  over  to  the  tenants. 
In  the  case  of  labor  co-part nershij)  or  tenants’ 


162 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


co-partnership  it  may  mean  the  adoption  of 
such  a transfer  of  management  to  employees  or 
tenants,  as  the  case  may  be,  but  whether  this  is 
so  or  not  cannot  l)e  settled  by  employees  de- 
manding the  control  of  a business,  or  tenants 
demanding  the  control  of  an  estate  as  a right, 
but  by  it  being  i)roved  that  such  a development 
is  wise.  If,  in  the  practice  of  co-j)artnershii)  on 
a more  or  less  limited  scale,  the  employees  or 
the  tenants  demonstrate  that  some  extension  of 
the  princi])le  is  ad\'antageous,  then  the  chances 
are  it  will  be  extended.  It  is  experiment  alone 
under  a variety  of  forms  of  co-partnership  con- 
tract, whether  in  tenancy  or  employment, 
which  can  determine  whether  there  is  any  best 
form.” 

Bonds  or  Stock  for  Tenants 

The  society  may  be  ])erfectly  willing  to  let 
the  tenants  control  its  i)olicy,  but  conditions 
may  make  it  more  desirable  for  the  tenants  to 
hold  bonds  than  stock.  The  bonds  generally 
rank  for  interest  before  the  stock.  In  addition 
to  this,  they  also,  as  a rule,  have  a prior  claim 
on  the  assets  of  the  society.  There  are,  how- 
ever, cases  as  in  the  .\vonmouth  Garden 
Suburb,  where  the  preferred  stock  in  the  liquida- 
tion of  the  society  ranks  pari  passu  with  the 
bonds  for  both  princij^al  and  interest. 

Bondholders,  it  should  be  mentioned,  are 
occasionally  given  a voice,  though  not  as  big  a 
voice  as  the  shareholders,  in  the  selection  of 
the  management.  Thus,  at  Avonmouth,  every 
member  has  one  vote  for  every  complete  $25 
share  of  common  or  j^referred  stock  or  for  every 
complete  $250  bond  held  by  him. 

The  experience  at  Ealing,  for  example,  was 
that  the  tenants  were  very  reluctant  to  take  up 
the  amount  of  fully  paid  stock  required.  To 
make  it  easier  for  the  tenants  to  acquire  stock, 
the  installment  method  of  paying  for  it  was 
inaugurated.  Even  this  did  not  help.  At  one 
time  more  than  half  the  tenants  in  the  suburb 
were  not  investors,  notwithstanding  the  en- 
treaties of  the  society.  To  have  pressed  the 
point  would  have  meant  that  the  houses  would 
have  remained  empty.  It  was  then  decided  to 
alter  the  rules  so  as  to  enable  the  holders  of 


bonds,  which  could  be  taken  up  in  smaller  in- 
stallments than  stock,  to  participate  like  the 
stockholders  in  the  dividends  paid  on  rents. 
This  policy  has  been  most  successful.  Since  its 
inauguration,  practically  every  house  let  has 
been  leased  to  a tenant  who  has  subscribed  for 
bonds. 

Protecting  the  Tenant’s  Investment 

Where  his  employment  is  of  an  uncertain 
character,  a tenant  may  find  it  inadvisable  to 
invest  in  either  the  society’s  stocks  or  bonds. 
Conditions  may  occur  where  the  tenant,  if  he 
should  be  obliged  to  leave  his  house,  could  not 
find  any  one  to  take  over  his  investment,  except 
at  a financial  loss.  This  difficulty  has  been 
remedied  in  some  societies  by  accepting,  in 
exceptional  cases,  a deposit  of  a certain  sum 
from  the  tenant  in  lieu  of  obliging  him  to  pur- 
chase stock  or  bonds.  This  deposit , like  the  stock 
and  bonds,  may  be  paid  in  full  at  one  time  or  in 
installments. 

That  the  degree  of  management  to  be  en- 
trusted to  the  tenants  must  be  determined  in 
each  case  is  the  view  of  Henry  Vi\dan,  chair- 
man of  the  Co-partnership  Tenants,  Ltd. 

“The  problem  that  confronts  us,”  says  Mr. 
\d\’ian,  “in  working  out  the  co-partnership 
tenancy  idea  on  our  estates  is  to  insure  that 
those  who  become  partners  shall  supplement 
the  efforts  of  the  board  and  officials  to  promote 
the  welfare  of  the  enterprise  and  to  add  to 
its  stability  and  security.  This  question  has 
been  specially  under  the  consideration  of  the 
Board  of  the  Co-partnership  Tenants,  Ltd.,  for 
some  two  or  three  }'ears.  The  Board,  as  a result 
of  its  experience,  has  come  definitely  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  unrestricted  admission  to 
complete  partnership  of  tenants  who  have  only 
a weekly  tenants’  interest,  coupled  with  a small 
contribution  to  capital,  which,  as  it  is  paid  out 
on  the  tenant  lea\dng,  only  in  effect  amounts 
to  a deposit,  is  not  the  most  satisfactory  way 
of  securing  the  co-operation  of  the  tenants  in 
promoting  the  welfare  of  the  society. 

“Under  such  a plan  we  admit  to  partnership 
those  with  a minimum  of  experience,  sense  of 
responsibilit}',  and  capital  at  stake,  mth  no 


163 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


assurance  that  it  is  even  their  intention  to 
make  a permanent  home  for  themselves  on  the 
estate.  Human  nature  being  what  it  is,  many 
of  these  partners  are  sure  to  take  a truly  per- 
sonal view  of  the  questions  affecting  the 
estate’s  welfare,  and  if  their  private  wishes 
are  not  satisfied  by  our  officials,  rules  and 
tenancy  agreements  notwithstanding,  they  act 
regardless  of  any  injury  their  conduct  may 
inflict.” 

Limiting  the  Right  of  Membership 

Mr.  Vivian  suggests  limiting  the  right  to 
become  full  members  of  a society  in  the  future 


to  those  who  have  been  tenants  for  a period  of 
three  years  and  who  hold  a minimum  amount  of 
common  stock.  At  the  same  time,  Mr.  Vivian 
would  withdraw  the  right  of  members  to  have 
their  investments  returned  to  them  when  they 
cease  being  tenants.  These  provisions  would 
oblige  those  received  into  full  partnership,  not 
only  to  demonstrate  their  intention  of  making 
their  home  on  the  estate  by  acquiring  a certain 
length  of  residence,  but  also  definitely  to  risk 
something  on  the  success  of  the  venture.  They 
would  not  be  able  to  rid  themselves  of  all 
responsibility  by  giving  a week’s  notice  and 
clearing  out. 


164 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


Cottage  Types,  Danielson,  Conn 


DANIELSON,  CONNECTICUT 

THE  “VILLAGE  BEAUTIEUL”  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  CONNECTICUT  MILLS  COMPANY 


By  VV.  H.  COX,  Jrchitect 


Thoughtful  planning  of  the  housing 
of  the  employees  of  the  Connecticut 
Mills  Company  has  proved  not  only  a 
humanitarian  project,  but  a profitable  invest- 
ment for  that  company.  The  Connecticut  Mills 


are  located  in  Danielson,  Conn.  In  the  planning 
of  the  houses  for  its  employees  the  company  has 
had  uppermost  in  mind  the  desire  to  create  a 
genuine  home  life,  to  encourage  a spirit  of 
contentment  and  an  interest  in  the  com- 


C O N N tCT  ICU  I QABLf.J 

DAN  DK  CO  H K __ 


165 


Commiavty  Center,  Danielson.  Conn. 
William  II.  Co.v,  .Ircliiteet 


166 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


munity  among  the  workers.  This  has  been 
accomplished  by  constructing  houses  neither 
the  rental  nor  the  cost  of  which  is  prohibitive; 
which  could  be  made  attractive  individual 
homes,  and  still  preserve  a harmonious  whole. 
The  development  conteni])lates  a unity  group, 
which,  when  comidete,  will  include  ai)artments. 


a school,  churches,  a recreation  center,  stores, 
shops  and  theaters.  There  is  ample  space 
surrounding  the  houses  for  the  development  of 
gardens. 

The  center  of  the  community  group  is  the 
“Connecticut  Gables”  (see  plans  and  per- 
spective). This  apartment  house  will  house 


Plot  Plans  of  Housing  Developments 
ir.  //.  Cox,  Architect 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


167 


Cottage  Types,  Danielson,  Conn. 


168 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


Cottage  Types,  Danielson,  Conn 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


169 


thirteen  families  and  provides  also  adequate 
club  and  assembly  rooms  for  the  entire  com- 
munity. The  walls  of  the  assembly  room  are 
paneled  with  heavy  hand-hewn  ceiling  beams, 
and  at  one  end  of  the  room  is  a large,  attractive 
fireplace.  In  the  basement  are  general  laundries 
for  tenants.  These  laundries  are  large,  light 
and  airy  and  are  equipped  with  washing 
machines  and  dryers.  A central  heating  plant 
supplies  the  heat  for  the  entire  building. 

On  the  property  there  is  a natural  pond  with 
rugged  slopes,  upon  which  it  is  planned  to 
build  one-  and  two-family  houses.  The  cottage 
for  the  welfare  worker  contains,  beside  living 
quarters  for  herself  and  assistant,  kindergarten 


rooms  and  equipment  for  cooking  and  domestic 
science  classes. 

In  general  the  workmen’s  cottages  range  from 
five  to  seven  rooms  per  family  and  the  rent 
from  $12.00  to  $18.00  a month. 

A similar  development  for  the  Canadian- 
Connecticut  Cotton  Mills  is  under  way  at 
Sherbrooke,  Quebec. 

The  Abbot  Worsted  Company 

Illustrations  of  the  housing  development  now 
begun  in  both  Graniteville  and  Forge  Village, 
Massachusetts,  show  the  character  of  the  work 
being  done  there  by  the  Abbot  Worsted  Com- 
pany, which  is  endeavoring  to  carry  out  plans 
for  the  better  living  conditions  of  its  workers. 


“A  GOOD  BUSINESS  INVESTMENT,  NO  CHARITY  ABOUT  IT,” 

SAYS  THE  COMPANY 


The  following  are  extracts  from  a booklet  published  by  the  Connecticut  Mills  Company,  appealing 
to  the  workman  who  is  desirous  of  rearing  his  family  amid  proper  surroundings. 


TAKE  YOUR  CHOICE 


If  you  and  your  wife  and  your  babies  lived  in  this  unhcallhful 
hovel  do  you  think  you  woidd  work  as  cheerfully  and  well  as  you 
could  if  — 

The  Connecticut  Mills  Company  in  Daniel- 
son, Conn.,  offers  you  a beautiful,  modern 
home  at  the  same  rental  you  often  have  to  pay 
for  tumble-down  shacks  in  many  mill-housing 
colonies.  It  offers  better  incomes. 


You  all  lived  in  this  handsome  modern  home  where  you  could 
hold  up  your  head  and  your  children  would  not  be  ashamed? 

It  Is  Called  “The  Village  Beautiful” 

It  offers  an  opportunity  for  its  operatives 
not  only  to  work  FOR  the  company,  but 
WITH  it! 


170 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


Danielson,  Conn.,  is  a clean 
little  New  England  town  of 
3,500  inhabitants,  with  pure 
air,  pure  water,  countr)'  sur- 
roundings, and  famous  for 
its  great  cotton  mills,  paved 
streets,  modern  water  and 
electric  service,  and  ]:»rosper- 
ous  banks. 

Our  investigations  and  ex- 
periments have  ])roved  that 
mill  operatives  housed  in 
handsome,  ui)-to-date  homes 
do  much  better  work  than 
those  who  live  in  scjualid, 
disgraceful  little  hovels.  We 

The  Village  Beautiful 

'bhe  homes  of  mill  0})eratiws  in  most  factory 
towns  are  like  these: 

You  Mr.  Workman 

know  that  in  most  of  the  factory  towns  the 
em])loyees  are  for  the  most  part  forced  to  live 
in  squalid  surroundings,  down  in  narrow  dirty 
little  streets  in  shacks.  Such  ])laces  are  known 


as  “Mill  Alley,”  “The  Flats,”  “The  Dump,” 
and  similar  unpleasant  terms. 

Your  child  at  school  may  he  asked  by  others, 
''Where  do  you  live?'^ 

And  when  your  child  tells,  the  other  young- 
sters turn  up  their  would-be  aristocratic  little 
noses  and  say,  “Oh,”  in  a tone  that  implies 
that  your  child  is  not  one  of  them.  You  prob- 
ably know  how  this  is.  Your  children  are  un- 
happy, they  are  made  to  feel  that  they  are  not 
the  equals  of  the  town  children.  You  know 
that  your  youngsters  are 
as  good  as  any  other 
youngsters  that  ever 
stubbed  out  the  toe  of  a 
new  shoe,  but  circumstances 
ha\’e  made  it  impossible 
for  you  to  give  them  the 
homes  they  would  like,  and 
should  have. 

Put  your  family  in  a 
modern  home  in  a restricted 
residential  park,  the  most 
attractive  part  of  the  whole 
town,  and  they  feel  that 
they  are  somebody  — they 
learn  that  they  are,  in  fact, 
the  equals  of  any  other 
youngsters  in  town.  They 
are  proud,  you  are  proud, 
you  do  better  work,  you 
live  happier,  you  have  less 
sickness  and  you  find  that 


These  handsome  houses,  are  occupied  by  mill  operatives  in  Danielson.  They  pay  from  $2.jo  to 
$4.00  a week  for  these  homes,  according  to  she.  They  may  buy  them  on  terms  as  easy  as  rent  if 
they  ii'ish,  at  cost,  as  the  mill  makes  no  profit  on  the  houses.  Some  of  the  employees  already  own 
homes  like  these.  This  does  not  mean  superintendents  and  officials  of  the  mills,  but  the  regular 
operatives.  This  view  explains  better  than  any  words  could  do  just  what  this  plan  means  for  a 
self-respecting  man  or  woman. 


It  is  unjust  to  the  workman  to  ask  any  sort  of  rent  for  such  places  or  to  expect  him  to  live 
amid  such  surroundings,  so  the  Connecticut  Mills  organized  companies  in  some  of  the  towns 
where  their  manufacturing  plants  are  located  to  build  beautiful  homes.  ^ 

call  this  plan 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


171 


FIRST  FLOOR 


5EC0ND  FLOOR 


House  Types,  Danielson,  Conn 


172 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


1 

j 

\r 

irrn- TTt- 

House  Types,  Danielson,  Conn. 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


173 


by  working  where  you  may  live  in  a “Village 
Beautiful,”  life  is  worth  living,  and  you  make 
more  money. 

There  Is  No  Charity  About  It 

The  company  that  builds  these  houses  gets 
a lo  per  cent  return  on  its  investment  and  no 
more,  to  cover  insurance,  interest,  taxes  and 
depreciation.  The  mill  makes  no  money  on 
selling,  renting  or  building.  And  you  get  a 
splendid  home  at  a price  you  can  afford. 

There’s  An  Inside  As  Well  As  An 
Outside 

to  these  homes.  All  the  beauty  is  not  on  the 
outside.  Every  home  has  pine  floors,  electric 
lights,  hot  and  cold  running  water,  large  bath 
rooms,  set  ranges,  cellar  and  attic,  veranda 
and  lawn,  a large  vegetable  garden  and  every- 
thing that  one  could  wish  and  more  than  one 
usually  gets  in  a home. 

These  same  houses  in  city  suburbs  and  other 
places  would  rent  at  from  $30.00  to  $50.00  a 
month,  instead  of  from  $12.00  to  $16.00,  the 
rate  in  Danielson,  because  no  profit  is  sought. 

Every  Home  Different 

You  have  seen  row  after  row  of  houses  in 
manufacturing  towns  up  and  down  dreary 
streets,  each  house  exactly  like  its  neighbor. 

At  one  glance  the  visitor  says:  “Oh,  cor- 
poration houses!”  They  know  all  about  them. 
They  are  ugly  houses,  every  one  knows  just 
what  the  other  house  is  like.  There  is  no 
individuality  and  there  can  be  little  self-respect. 

In  the  Village  Beautiful  NO  TWO  HOUSES 
ARE  ALIKE!  They  are  different  colors, 
different  designs,  different  gabled  windows, 
porches,  shapes  and  sizes.  They  look  just  like 
what  they  are  — the  cozy  private  home  of  an 
individual,  hard-working  and  valuable  fellow 
citizen. 

There  are  a few  four-family  houses,  but  only  a 


few,  and  these  are  for  housing  workmen  and 
their  families  while  they  are  waiting  for  their 
special  choice  of  house  to  be  built  for  them. 

There  are  some  two-family  houses,  but  for 
the  most  part  they  are  single  houses  of  from 
five  to  eight  rooms,  so  that  almost  any-sized 
family  may  be  accommodated. 

NO  EVICTIONS  HERE.—  If  through  ill- 
ness or  any  other  trouble  you  cannot  make  up 
even  the  $2.50  or  $4.00  a week  rentals,  the 
company  you  work  for  will  take  care  of  a good 
workman. 

Thirty  Per  Cent  Down  Buys  Your 
Home 

The  average  cost  of  the  single  houses  is 
$1,900,  and  that  of  the  double  $3,600.  You 
couldn’t  build  them  for  that  unless,  like  the 
Danielson  Construction  Company,  you  built 
them  by  the  score. 

Thirty  per  cent  of  the  cost  of  a single  house  is 
about  $600.  If  you  have  already  saved  that 
amount  you  may  pay  it  down  and  the  company 
will  take  a mortgage  for  the  remaining  seventy 
per  cent  which  you  pay  like  rent. 

If  you  haven’t  the  $600,  the  company  you 
work  for  will  help  you  out  and  after  you  have 
paid  that  back  in  small  installments,  then  you 
may  go  ahead  and  pay  the  rest  of  it  in  similar 
small  installments,  like  rent,  to  the  holding 
company. 

A Good  Home  Makes  You  One- 
Third  Better  Workman 

It  has  been  proved  that  workmen  who  live 
in  good  homes  like  these  are  much  more  effi- 
cient. That  is,  they  are  better  workmen.  They 
are  worth  more  to  their  employers,  to  theii 
families,  to  the  community  and  themselves. 
No  man  or  woman  knows  how  well  they  can 
do  until  they  have  the  chance  and  incentive 
of  good  living  conditions. 


HOUSING  BY  THE  COMMONWEALTH 
OF  MASSACHUSETTS 


THE  INITIAI.  EXPERIMENT  IN  GOVERNMENT  AID  UNDER  DIRECTION  OE  THE 
MASSACHUSETTS  HOMESTEAD  COMMISSION 


KILHAM  AND  HOPKINS, 

By  WILLIAM  ROGER  GREELEY 


THP^  State  of  Massachusetts  in  1917  au- 
thorized its  Homestead  Commission  to 
enter  the  field  of  state  jiarticijiation  in 
house  building.  The  Commission  j^roceeded 
at  once  to  arrange  for  the  purchase  of  a certain 
tract  of  land  in  Lowell,  Mass.,  within  easy 
walking  distance  of  the  business  and  industrial 
center  and  near  many  of  the  large  mills,  and  to 
construct  a group  of  workingmen’s  cottages,  to 
be  sold  ujion  their  completion  to  operatives  in 
the  Lowell  mills.  Idiis  was  the  first  govern- 
mental attemjit  in  America  to  demonstrate 
that  workingmen’s  houses  could  be  built  at- 
tractively, comfortably,  and  with  fair  ]irolit 
at  a reasonable  tigure. 


We  have  iiTqiorted  millions  of  men  and 
women  to  work  for  us  as  operatives  in  mills  and 
as  laborers  in  the  fields.  We  have  kept  them 
at  work  all  day,  and  at  night  we  have  paid 
them  off,  and  sent  them  away  from  the  mills. 
They  have  found  themselves  in  a strange  land 
and  without  a home.  We  have  left  them  to 
themseh'es  and  the  mercy  of  sometimes  ruth- 
less landlords  to  find  a place  in  which  to  live. 
We  have  even  protected  the  landlords  in  crim- 
inal practices  of  extortion  and  bad  housing. 

Years  ago  in  Europe  people  began  to  feel  it 
a duty  to  help  the  operative  of  small  means 
to  find  a decent  home.  It  is  reported  that  New 
Zealand,  in  an  attempt  to  render  such  aid  to 


174 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


175 


her  working  classes,  has  so  wonderfully  suc- 
ceeded that  she  puts  $500,000  a year  in  the 
public  treasury. 

The  First  State  to  Act 

When  Massachusetts,  although  carrying  the 
heayy  load  of  a war  budget,  gave  heed  to  the 
recommendation  of  her  Homestead  Commission 
and  appropriated  $50,000  to  help  secure  home- 
steads for  her  less  prosperous  citizens,  the 
United  States  became  one  of  the  group  of 
nations  that  could  boast  some  action  along  the 
line  of  this  enlightened  policy.  Massachusetts 
intends  to  constitute  herself  a laboratory  for 
working  out  the  housing  problem,  and  an  agent 
for  securing  houses  for  the  people;  not  a 
paternalistic  institution,  to  build  and  rent 
houses  for  her  citizens.  In  the  words  of  the 
Commission,  “The  State  should  experiment  to 
learn  whether  or  not  it  is  possible  to  build  whole- 
some dwellings  within  the  means  of  low  paid 
workers.” 

Massachusetts  had,  early  in  1917,  258,000 
men  working  for  less  than  $15  per  week;  of  this 
number  98,000  received  less  than  $10  a week. 
As  the  Commission  says:  “Every  considera- 
tion of  public  health,  morals,  well-being,  and 
progress  and  stability  of  civilization  demands 
that  the  children  of  these  men  be  brought  up  in 
wholesome,  healthful  homes.  Yet  almost  the 
only  dwellings  available  to  them  are  the 
tenements,  into  which  they  are  flocking  in  in- 
creasing proportions.” 

Rentals  Fixed  at  25  Per  Cent  of 
Income 

In  determining  the  size  and  character  of  a 
house  a family  can  afford,  one-quarter  of  the 
monthly  income  is  accepted  as  the  standard 
for  monthly  rent.  The  rent  is  computed  as 
about  9 per  cent  of  the  selling  value  of  the 
homestead.  A man  earning  $25  a week  ($108 
per  month)  could  pay  $27  a month  as  rent. 
This  amount  would  secure  for  him  a $3,600 
homestead.  Land  and  improvements  over  and 
above  the  cost  of  the  house  itself  can  be  had 
for  $400  or  $500  in  most  localities,  leaving  $3,100 
or  $3,200  for  the  cost  of  the  house.  This  price 


will  permit  the  construction  of  a 6-room  house, 
even  at  the  present  market  prices.  There  is 
no  baffling  problem  for  the  architect  here. 
In  fact,  he  is  already  solving  the  housing 
problem  for  families  receiving  $25  or  more  per 
week,  and  solving  it  well. 

The  more  perplexing  part  of  the  problem  is 
the  working  out  of  a plan  for  the  man  receiving 
not  more  than  $15  per  week.  Unfortunately, 
there  are  more  of  this  class  than  of  any  other. 

This  part  of  the  housing  cjuestion  has  been 
the  one  to  which  the  Homestead  Commission 
of  Massachusetts  has  addressed  itself  in  all 
seriousness  and  devotion.  The  results  so  far 
are  interesting,  but  the  problem  is  not  yet 
solved. 

The  Commission  undertook  to  analyze  the 
needs  of  the  family,  and  arrived  at  conclusions 
differing  in  some  respects  from  the  standards 
developed  and  tacitly  accepted  by  housing 
interests.  They  agreed  in  the  major  divisions 
of  the  house, — living  room,  kitchen,  three 
bedrooms,  and  bath,  but  differed  in  the  matter 
of  height  of  rooms,  believing  7 feet  8 inches  and 
7 feet  4 inches  to  be  high  enough  for  first  and 
second  floors  respectively.  There  is  no  virtue 
in  the  slight  additional  amount  of  air  contained 
in  a room  8 feet  high  when  it  is  sealed  up  with 
closed  doors  and  windows.  If  the  windows  are 
open,  one  is  as  good  as  the  other.  There  is  much 
gained  in  appearance  by  the  lower  stud,  as  it 
gives  increased  apparent  size  owing  to  the 
improved  proportions  of  the  small  rooms.  It 
also  justifies  itself  in  the  saving  cost,  and  the 
more  attractive  exterior  lines  of  the  house. 
Furthermore,  every  step  saved  between  the 
first  and  second  floors  is  a great  advantage  to 
the  wife  of  the  family. 

Housing  Standards 

The  standards  agreed  upon  by  housing  ex- 
perts for  the  one-  and  two-family  house  for 
mill  workers,  are  in  part  as  follows: 

Number  of  rooms  normally,  four. 

Size  of  rooms:  Large  bedroom,  10  by  12  feet 
to  12  by  14  feet;  small  bedroom,  minimum 
size,  80  square  feet,  minimum  width,  7 feet; 
parlor,  10  by  12  feet  to  12  by  14  feet;  dining 


176 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


Five-room  Dwell i iig 


House  Type  for  Lowest  Paid  Workmen 


room,  lo  by  12  feet  to  12  by  14  feet;  kitchen 
(where  there  is  no  dining  room),  10  by  12  feet  to 
12  by  14  feet. 

Where  there  is  a dining  room,  a kitchenette 
80  square  feet  in  area  with  minimum  width  of 
5 feet  is  accei)tal)le. 

C'eiling  heights,  minimum  8 feet  clear. 

Cellar.-  - WeW  lighted,  cross  ventilated,  dry 
and  paved,  minimum  height,  6 feet  6 inches 
clear,  not  essential  under  wiiole  house;  where 
omitted,  house  to  be  set  upon  posts,  stones,  or 
wall,  with  2 feet  clear  s]'>ace,  drained  and 
ventilated. 

U’itidows. — Each  room  to  have  at  least  one, 
two  where  feasible;  minimum  size,  9 scpiare 
feet.  Heads  as  near  ceiling  as  practicable. 

Ventilation.-  - By  windows,  transoms,  or 
doors  for  all  rooms. 

Closets. — One  to  bedroom,  normally  at  least 
22  inches  in  one  dimension,  and  ]rreferably  with 
a door. 

Plumbing  System. — Set  wash  tubs,  ])referably 
two  in  kitchen;  if  demanded  by  local  custom, 
to  be  ])ermitted  in  well  lighted,  dry,  and 
ventilated  cellar.  Sink  in  kitchen,  rim  about 
36  inches  above  floor.  Bath  tub.  Water  closet 
- modern  type  orifice  of  easy  clearance,  inside 
house,  in  well  \'entilated  compartment,  with 
window  to  open  air  of  3 square  feet  minimum. 
Preferably  impervious  floor  slab.  Set  wash- 
bowl, preferably  in  bath  room. 

Heating. — Individual  system.  If  cellar  is 
omitted,  heat  bath  from  kitchen  stove. 

Lighting. — Electric  or  gas. 


Cooking. — Gas  range. 

Materials  of  Watts. — Brick,  tile,  or  concrete 
preferred. 

Roof. — Eire-resisting  material  for  surface. 

Frame  Construction  Best 

The  question  of  materials  is  important. 
Evolution  and  e.xperience  ha\'e  pointed  to  the 
frame  house  as  the  “fittest  survivor”  of  the 
exacting  conditions  existing  in  New  England. 
It  is  cheap,  warm,  dry,  and  easy  to  build,  en- 
large or  alter.  It  is  almost  as  safe  from  con- 
flagration as  a house  with  exterior  walls  of 
masonry  if  built  with  fire-resisting  roof  and  with 
])roper  space  between  houses.  No  other  kind 
of  construction  oilers  the  same  combination  of 
advantages  for  this  lowest  cost  t}qoe  of  house. 
iMasonry  offers  less  resistance  to  cold  and  heat, 
as  engineers  have  proved.  It  is  not  so  dry. 
It  is  more  difficult  to  enlarge  or  alter  and  pre- 
sents more  work  in  building,  especially  in 
winter.  It  costs  more,  although  somewhat 
cheaper  to  maintain. 

The  Commission,  however,  imdted  proposals 
on  masonry  types  and  on  ready-cut  houses  as 
well  as  the  wood  frame.  The  figures  submitted 
showed  the  old-fashioned  frame  house  in  the 
lead. 

Types  of  Houses 

Contracts  were  let  for  a number  of  houses  of 


three  types,  as  follows: 

Semi-detached,  4-room — 16  by  22  ft $1,932,00 

Single,  5-room — 18  by  22  ft 2,313.00 

Single,  5-room — 16  by  26  ft 2,360.83 


177 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


The  houses  were  designed  with  two  types  of 
roof.  These  were  covered  with  slate-surfaced 
asbestos  shingles.  The  contract  included  com- 
plete cemented  cellar,  plumbing,  hot  and  cold 
water,  electric  lights,  hardwood  floors,  plastered 
walls  and  ceilings,  paper  on  walls  at  15  cents  a 
roll,  double  hung  windows,  special  frame, 
double  thick  glass,  firestops,  trap  door  and 
vents  to  attic,  and  four  plumbing  fixtures  and 
sill  cock. 

The  illustrations  show  two  of  the  types  built 
at  Lowell;  the  4-room,  semi-detached  house 
costing  per  family  $1,932,  and  the  other,  the 
5-room  single  dwelling  at  $2,360.83.  A third 
type  of  house  is  shown,  which  illustrates  the 
result  of  an  effort  to  build  a house  costing  only 
$1,870,  and  yet  conforming  to  the  required 
standards.  It  is  intended  to  meet  the  needs  of 
the  lowest  paid  workman’s  family.  It  does  not 
provide  all  the  facilities  for  a home  that  are 
desirable,  for  such  a family  cannot  be  Ameri- 
canized at  one  fell  swoop.  This  plan  gives  them 
a cellar,  hot  and  cold  water  in  sink,  bath  tub 
and  wash-bowl,  hardwood  floors,  electric  lights, 
etc.,  but  permits  them  to  follow  their  former 
habits  in  the  matter  of  eating  in  the  kitchen  and 
heating  the  house  by  the  coal  range.  The  source 
of  the  greatest  ill  health  in  a family  is  the  un- 
natural dryness  of  the  indoor  air  in  winter. 


In  the  housing  field  there  is  only  one  economical 
humidifier  — the  tea-kettle.  Moisture,  as  a 
by-product  of  cooking,  costs  nothing  extra,  but 
is  a fine  health  promoter,  so  that  the  kitchen 
is  the  healthiest  room  to  live  in.  They  are 
helped  to  avoid  disorder  by  the  substitution  of 
an  alcove  or  a wall  space  for  the  dark  and 
noisome  closet  ordinarily  provided  in  a bed- 
room. 

The  houses  built  at  Lowell  have  been  sold 
under  certain  restrictions  of  record,  intended 
to  safeguard  the  colony  against  future  mis- 
haps. 

The  Commission  has  not,  however,  developed 
or  put  in  practice  any  land  policy  to  protect  the 
homes  that  it  has  constructed.  This  great  re- 
form is  nevertheless  taking  more  and  more 
definite  shape  in  the  minds  of  those  who  are 
helping  to  steer  the  destiny  of  our  nation,  and 
will  bear  fruit  in  the  not  far  distant  future. 

Meanwhile,  Massachusetts  deserves  credit 
for  this  first  governmental  demonstration  of  the 
possibilities  of  homesteads  for  her  unhoused  or 
ill-housed  citizens.  She  has  been  criticized 
already  because  these  houses  that  she  has  built 
are  small.  She  is  pointing  out  that  only  by 
more  careful  and  intelligent  use  of  space  can  the 
house  be  brought  within  the  reach  of  those  who 
need  it  most. 


Four-room  Scmi-dctachcd  Type  Lowell,  Mass. 


178 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


General  View,  Kenosha 


Backs  of  Nearly  Completed  Houses 


House  Type  No.  lo  and  Floor  Plans  House  Type  No.  i with  Floor  Plans 


House  Type  No.  ii 


Cottages  at  Kenosha,  Wis. 


HOW  KENOSHA  GRAPPLED  WITH 
ITS  HOUSING  SHORTAGE 


By  CONRAD  SHEARER 

Vice-President,  Kenosha  Homes  Company 


Kenosha,  the  “ Gateway  to  Wisconsin,” 
is  one  of  the  few  cities  of  the  United 
States  which  has  taken  hold  of  the 
housing  problem  in  a systematic  manner.  This 
city  is  noted  as  a live  industrial  center.  Its 
manufacturing  plants  produce  a great  variety 
of  articles,  including  automobiles,  beds,  leather, 
brass  goods,  tables,  wire  rope,  auto  lamps, 
hosiery,  underwear,  wagons  etc.  Situated 
about  fifty  miles  from  Chicago  and  thirty  from 
the  metropolis  of  Wisconsin,  it  has  marked 
advantages  along  the  lines  of  transportation 
and  labor  markets.  Kenosha’s  population  has 
increased  about  fifty  per  cent  during  the  past 
ten  years,  and  is  now  estimated  at  35,000. 
In  the  same  space  of  time,  the  number  of  fac- 
tory operatives  has  more  than  doubled  and 
the  weekly  payroll  increased  from  $100,000  to 
$300,000. 

In  October,  1907,  the  manufacturers  of 
Kenosha  met  and  formed  the  association  which 
composes  the  nucleus  of  the  housing  history. 
The  principles  of  this  organization  declared  for 
closer  cd-operation  upon  all  questions  affecting 
the  interests  of  the  members.  It  has  secured 
better  working  conditions,  improved  health 
and  sanitation,  obtained  machinery  safeguards 
against  accidents,  and  has  advanced  wages. 
All  these  advantages  have  proved  so  attractive 
to  the  applicant  for  employment  that  labor  has 
flocked  to  the  city  from  all  sections  of  the 
country.  Seven  years  ago,  the  need  of  addi- 
tional houses  to  care  for  the  working  popula- 
tion became  evident  to  all  manufacturers. 
In  March,  1911,  President  W.  L.  Yule  in  his 
annual  address  to  the  association,  said: 

“Our  great  need  at  the  present  time  is  not  more 
factories.  We  require  more  homes  for  our  wage  earners 


now  in  the  city  and  for  those  coming  to  us  from  other 
cities.  The  erection  of  more  houses  and  the  substitu- 
tion of  married  for  single  men  is  the  sure  and  better 
method  of  building  a greater  Kenosha.” 

Manufacturers  recognized  the  truth  set  forth 
in  President  Yule’s  statement  and  took  steps  to 
interest  builders  in  the  proposition.  Numerous 
meetings  were  held  and  the  subject  presented 
to  large  contractors,  but,  without  capital,  none 
was  willing  to  take  up  the  work.  With  this 
temporary  failure,  the  matter  lay  dormant 
several  years. 

House  Shortage  Bad  for  Business 

In  the  spring  of  1916,  the  lack  of  houses 
became  most  evident.  Many  of  the  plants  were 
badly  in  need  of  skilled  help.  Mechanics  came 
to  the  city  in  large  numbers  to  accept  situations. 
They  even  started  work,  but  on  account  of  no 
housing  facilities,  were  obliged  to  leave.  Keno- 
sha lost  hundreds  of  valuable  operatives  in  a 
few  months.  The  increase  in  new  houses  for 
the  preceding  year  numbered  less  than  250 
while  the  total  gain  in  employees  was  nearly 
3,000.  A meeting  of  the  manufacturers’  asso- 
ciation was  called  and  it  was  decided  to  employ 
an  expert  to  make  a survey  of  housing  condi- 
tions. The  man  selected  was  Dr.  John  Nolen, 
of  Cambridge,  Mass.,  who  had  had  wide  experi- 
ence in  this  class  of  work. 

Dr.  Nolen’s  first  step  was  to  send  a list  of 
questions  to  all  manufacturers.  These  in- 
cluded the  number  of  workmen  in  need  of 
homes,  the  different  nationalities,  skilled  and 
unskilled  workers,  the  average  wage  rate,  tracts 
of  land  available  for  house  building,  methods 
of  securing  loans,  etc.  Each  manufacturer 
furnished  such  information  as  he  could,  and 


179 


180 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


from  the  several  reports  the  foundation  for  the 
survey  was  laid.  Later  Dr.  Nolen  and  his 
assistant,  Alfred  F.  Muller,  came  to  Kenosha 
to  study  its  housing  problem  at  close  range.  A 
careful  study  of  the  different  tyi)es  of  workers’ 
homes  was  made.  Streets  were  comj)ared  as 
regards  width,  design,  etc.  City  ordinances 
were  carefully  examined  with  a view  to  finding 
housing  regulations.  The  examination  revealed 
little  of  value,  for  Kenosha  at  that  time  did  not 
haw  even  a building  ordinance.  Regardless 
of  this,  and  perhajis  more  by  accident  than 
otherwise,  it  was  found  that  the  standards  of 
house  building  were  high.  Conijiared  to  that 
of  other  cities,  it  was  far  above  the  average. 
In  the  main,  the  houses  were  of  the  single  family 
type  located  on  average  size  lots.  The  impor- 
tant factors  of  heat,  light  and  ventilation  had 
been  carefully  observed. 

Dr.  Nolen’s  re[)ort,  which  was  compiled  im- 
mediately after  the  survey,  covered  the  entire 
held  of  housing.  It  set  forth  exanijiles  of  un- 
desirable buildings  in  contrast  to  better  types 
of  homes,  not  alone  in  Kenosha  but  elsewhere. 

After  a review  of  the  housing  report,  manu- 
facturers were  fully  determined  upon  ])roceed- 
ing  with  building  operations.  The  next  stej) 
was  to  organize  a stock  company  which  was 
incorporated  with  a capital  stock  of  $25,000 
and  subscrij)tions  amounting  to  $400,000.  With 
the  election  of  officers,  of  which  the  mayor  of  the 
city  was  j^resident,  the  Kenosha  Homes  Com- 
pany announced  its  plans  and  commenced 
active  operations. 

Local  Contractors  Used 

News  of  the  building  project  soon  reached 
the  ears  of  contractors  and  a large  western  hrm 
was  first  to  submit  plans  and  to  enter  into 
negotiations.  Its  proposition  met  with  much 
favor,  but  at  this  point,  local  builders  appeared 
and  sought  a hearing.  The  Kenosha  House 
Building  Company,  an  organization  having  as 
its  head  an  ex-mayor,  who  is  owner  of  a large 
lumber  yard,  and  his  partner,  a well  known 
real  estate  man,  seemed  to  be  fully  equipped 
to  undertake  the  task.  This  company  offered 
terms  which  appeared  highly  satisfactory  and 


Type  No.  4 House,  Kenosha 


agreed  to  give  preference  to  home  labor.  A 
contract  calling  for  the  erection  of  four  hun- 
dred houses  was  drawn  and  signed. 

Costs  and  Financing 

One  important  provision  of  the  contract 
was  the  stipulated  cost  of  the  houses  — $1,500 
to  $2,500.  This  figure  was  found  to  be  too  low, 
the  })rices  ranging  from  $1,700  to  $3,000.  Two 
tracts  of  land  were  purchased  by  the  Kenosha 
Homes  Company,  but  workingmen  owning  lots 
in  different  sections  of  the  city  could  arrange  to 
have  houses  erected  thereon.  The  Kenosha 
House  Building  Company  agreed  to  erect  all 
houses  for  cost  plus  10  per  cent.  Local  banks 
arranged  to  provide  finances  to  the  extent  of 
65  per  cent  of  the  total  value,  taking  a first 
mortgage  for  seven  years.  The  Kenosha 
Homes  Company  agreed  to  supply  35  per  cent 
of  the  money  required,  and  take  a second 
mortgage.  The  supervision  of  the  entire  enter- 
prise was  left  to  the  Homes  Company  while  the 
House  Building  Company  was  to  make  all 
sales  and  collections  and  keep  a complete  set 
of  books.  According  to  agreement,  the  second 
mortgage  advanced  by  the  manufacturers, 
must  be  paid  back  first  with  interest  at  6 per 
cent.  Five  per  cent  of  the  sales  price  goes  to 
the  Homes  Company  to  meet  its  operating 
expenses. 

The  first  funds  raised  for  the  treasury  of  the 
Kenosha  Homes  Company  were  secured  by  a 
call  for  10  per  cent  of  the  subscriptions.  Later 
needs  occasioned  a call  for  20  per  cent  which 
has  to  date  supplied  the  necessary  finances. 
Large  subscribers  paid  by  check,  others  gave 
their  notes,  and  some  loaned  their  credit  by 
endorsing  notes  of  the  Kenosha  Homes  Com- 
pany. The  rate  of  interest  in  each  case  was 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


181 


placed  at  5 per  cent.  All  capital  stock  was 
paid  for  in  cash,  upon  the  receipt  of  which 
certificates  were  issued.  Notes  were  issued  by 
the  Homes  Company  to  subscribers  for  the 
amounts  subscribed.  These  notes  run  for  one 
year  and  may  be  continued  upon  payment  of 
the  interest  due. 

Benefits  of  Wholesale 
Construction 

Naturally  the  one  great  advantage  the 
House  Building  Company  had  over  the  small 
contractor  was  the  purchasing  of  material  on  a 
large  scale.  Wholesale  prices  meant  a big 
reduction  in  the  cost.  All  work  was  done  on  the 
open  shop  system,  thus  the  best  carpenters 
received  a rate  equivalent  to  that  paid  under 
union  scale,  while  less  competent  men  at  the 
same  trade  were  placed  on  rough  work  at  a 
considerably  lower  rate.  Large  quantities  of 
material,  including  doors,  windows,  etc.,  were 
stored  in  warehouses  on  the  grounds,  affording 
every  convenience.  Each  division  of  the  con- 
struction was  placed  in  a distinct  class,  and  a 
certain  group  of  men  assigned  to  each  opera- 
tion. For  instance,  the  houses  were  built  in 
groups  of  ten  to  fifteen;  one  crew  of  men  did 
nothing  but  lath,  another  did  the  shingling 
while  a third  hung  doors.  In  this  way,  there 
was  no  time  lost  by  shifting  men  from  one  job 
to  another. 

Close  supervision  of  all  operations  was 
carried  out  under  direction  of  the  Kenosha 
Homes  Company.  Competent  architects  from 
Chicago  inspected  the  work  monthly  or  oftener 
as  required.  A Kenosha  architect  was  engaged 
subject  to  call  at  any  time.  Alfred  F.  Muller, 
able  assistant  to  Dr.  Nolen,  was  selected  as 
manager  and  gave  his  entire  time  to  supervising 
the  work.  No  building  has  been  erected  nor  has 
material  been  used  without  being  carefully  in- 
spected. Mr.  Muller  lost  his  life  in  a railway 
accident  early  in  December  and  Mr.  R.  E. 
Mailer,  the  present  manager,  succeeded  him  in 
the  work. 

After  building  operations  were  well  under 
way,  it  was  decided  to  reduce  the  number  of 
houses  from  400  to  200.  This  change  was 


deemed  necessary  for  two  reasons:  first,  to 
reduce  the  amount  of  capital  required  to  finance 
the  project,  and  second,  to  reduce  the  cost  of  the 
bond  required  of  the  Kenosha  House  Building 
Company.  At  the  beginning  of  the  winter  of 
igi6  there  were  125  houses  in  course  of  erection. 
About  80  of  these  were  finished  and  occupied. 
In  the  spring  of  1917,  the  Homes  Company 
decided  to  finish  up  the  houses  already  under 
construction  rather  than  begin  work  on  others. 
Considerable  vacant  land  now  platted  for  build- 
ing purposes  is  owned  by  the  Homes  Company, 
but  owing  to  the  greatly  advanced  prices  of 
labor  and  material,  it  is  deemed  wise  to  post- 
pone additional  work  for  the  present.  As  the 
need  for  houses  is  about  as  pressing  now  as 
before,  more  will  be  erected  as  soon  as  condi- 
tions warrant. 

It  may  be  of  interest  to  know  something  con- 
cerning the  method  by  which  the  houses  are 
sold.  Naturally  preference  is  given  to  factory 
workers.  We  have  a regular  printed  form  of 
application  blank  which  must  be  filled  in  by 
those  desiring  to  purchase  a home.  All  applica- 
tions are  carefully  reviewed  by  officials  of  the 
Homes  Company,  and  no  house  can  be  sold  to 
any  applicant,  except  upon  their  approval.  In 
each  case  the  purchaser  must  pay  down  at 
least  $100  and  thereafter  a minimum  monthly 
payment  of  $18.  No  difficulty  has  been  ex- 
perienced in  disposing  of  the  houses,  as  a 
majority  have  been  sold  before  they  were  ready 
for  occupancy.  It  is  necessary  today  to  turn 
away  many  applicants  for  want  of  houses,  and 
without  doubt  there  is  demand  at  present  for 
several  hundred  new  homes. 

Beauty  of  Surroundings 
Important 

In  the  endeavor  to  deliver  to  the  workingman 
a home  at  the  lowest  cost  possible,  modern  im- 
provements and  beauty  have  not  been  over- 
looked. The  houses  are  of  the  single  and  double 
type  absolutely  detached.  Lots  measure  40  by 
138  feet  and  50  by  100  feet,  giving  ample  space 
between  buildings.  These  lots  and  houses  are 
delivered  to  the  purchaser  complete  in  every 
particular.  Improvements  include  bath,  hot 


182 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


and  cold  water,  gas  for  cooking  purposes,  heat- 
ing furnace,  and  electric  light  fixtures.  Houses 
are  set  back  20  to  35  feet  from  the  street  line 
and  shade  trees,  shrubs  and  lawns  planted  in 
front  of  each  house.  One  subdivision  contains 
a small  park  in  the  center  planted  with  shrubs 
and  ornamental  trees,  dire  general  plan  of  the 
group  of  houses  gives  a very  pleasing  appear- 
ance. Houses,  instead  of  being  constructed 
from  one  ])lan,  are  dissimilar  and  arranged  in 
such  a way  that  no  two  of  like  appearance 
are  together. 

Some  mention  might  be  made  of  advertising 
in  order  to  sell  the  houses.  Ifut,  as  previously 
stated,  the  houses  sell  themselves,  thus  doing 
away  with  the  need  of  any  special  publicity. 
As  a rule  some  man  at  each  factory  represents 
the  Homes  Company  and  receives  applications 
from  employees  who  are  seeking  homes.  His 
duties  are  to  get  in  touch  with  prospective  pur- 
chasers, explain  to  them  the  advantages  offered 
by  the  Kenosha  Homes  Company,  and  assist 
in  such  other  ways  as  he  may  be  able,  in  con- 
necting the  home  seeker  with  the  home. 

Manufacturers  of  Kenosha  will  agree  that 
the  housing  project  has  proved  valuable  espe- 
cially from  the  standpoint  of  experience. 
Naturally  with  an  undertaking  of  such  magni- 
tude, some  mistakes  have  been  made.  But  in 
view  of  the  good  accomi)lished,  the  errors  can 
be  overlooked.  Kenosha  Homes  Company  in- 
tends to  continue  building  homes  for  Kenosha’s 
working  population.  Idie  experiment  has 
taught  these  things: 

Certain  types  of  houses  are  acceptable  while 
others  are  not. 


Factory  workers  wish  to  own  homes. 

Material  and  workmanship  should  be  of  the 
best. 

Taste  and  beauty  of  surroundings  are  very 
important. 

Location  is  one  of  the  chief  factors. 

Briefly  summing  up  the  results  of  the  housing 
exi^eriment  in  Kenosha,  we  can  note  numerous 
benefits.  Out  of  the  movement  came  a building 
ordinance  which  the  city  should  have  had 
many  years  ago.  With  the  ordinance  came  a 
plumbing  and  building  inspector,  two  very  ne- 
cessary ofiicials.  Our  workmen  have  been 
encouraged  in  their  ambition  to  become  owners 
of  homes,  thus  fostering  thrift  through  the 
saving  habit.  Contrary  to  predictions  at  the 
start  that  the  action  of  the  manufacturers 
would  retard  building,  it  had  the  opposite 
effect. 

Above  all  else  the  movement  is  recognized  by 
municipal  authorities  as  one  of  Kenosha’s  big 
forward  steps  in  the  interests  of  health  and 
sanitation.  Few  Departments  of  Health  have 
not  been  called  to  cojie  with  disease  caused  by 
poor  housing.  A large  percentage  of  the  crime 
of  our  cities  can  be  traced  to  crowded  tene- 
ments. Therefore,  if  by  constructing  houses 
along  right  lines  we  cultivate  higher  ideals, 
impro\'e  health  and  sanitation,  save  the  growing 
boys  and  girls  for  honorable  and  useful  lives, 
and  in  short,  make  the  home  a haven  of  rest, 
health  and  happiness,  then  the  value  of  such 
movements  as  that  of  Bridgeport,  Waterbury, 
Akron  and  others,  as  well  as  Kenosha,  can  not 
be  overestimated. 


House  Type  No.  7,  Kenosha 


ALTON,  ILLINOIS 


AN  INDUSTRIAL  TOWN  WHICH  IS  SOLVING  ITS  HOUSING  PROBLEM  THROUGH 
CITIZENS’  CO-OPERATION  WITH  A BUILDING  SYNDICATE 


PRIOR  to  January  i,  1918,  there  existed 
in  Alton  a housing  shortage,  then 
estimated  to  be  approximately  600 
homes.  Several  of  the  larger  manufacturing 
plants  complained  to  the  mayor  that  this 
shortage  was  seriously  affecting  the  output  of 
their  concerns,  and  that  unless  the  condition 
was  relieved  they  would  be  compelled  to  es- 
tablish branches  to  take  care  of  part  of  their 
activities  in  other  locations.  The  Board  of 
Trade  at  that  time  had  inquiries  from  a number 
of  manufacturing  enterprises  which  desired  to 
locate  in  Alton.  The  manager  of  the  Board  of 
Trade  was  unable  to  satisfy  them  that  they 
could  operate  successfully  here,  owing  to  short- 
age of  houses. 

A committee  of  the  manufacturers  and  busi- 
ness men  extended  an  invitation  to  the  House 
of  Hancock,  a building  syndicate  with  head 
offices  in  Chicago,  to  come  to  Alton,  make  an 
investigation  of  the  housing  conditions,  and 
assist  in  bringing  about  a solution.  Repre- 
sentatives of  this  organization  came  to  xAlton, 
met  with  a committee  of  the  manufacturers 
and  business  men,  and  offered  to  establish  a 
unit  of  their  organization  in  Alton,  provided 
they  were  assured  of  sufficient  local  support  to 
justify  them  in  so  doing.  A larger  meeting  was 
then  called,  and  approximately  $70,000  pledged 
as  an  initial  fund  to  carry  out  the  building 
campaign. 

Financial  Arrangements 

The  local  support  asked  for  consisted  of  sub- 
scriptions to  the  trust  certificates  of  the  House 
of  Hancock. 

The  business  of  this  organization  is  conducted 
by  a board  of  five  trustees,  who  serves  without 


pay.  The  funds  required  to  carry  on  a building 
program  are  provided  through  the  sale  of  the 
6 per  cent  preferred  trust  certificates  of  the 
House  of  Hancock.  These  certificates  are  pur- 
chased by  the  manufacturers,  business  men  and 
other  public-spirited  citizens  in  the  community 
where  the  operation  is  being  carried  on,  and  by 
investors  both  in  the  community  and  in  the  vari- 
ous other  locations  where  agencies  for  their  sale 
have  been  established.  The  certificates  are  also 
purchased  by  wage-earners  on  the  installment 
plan.  The  shares  of  the  House  of  Hancock  are 
in  denominations  of  one  hundred  dollars  and 
may  be  purchased  on  terms  as  low  as  five 
dollars  cash  and  five  dollars  per  month  per 
share,  6 per  cent  interest  being  allowed  on  the 
payments  made. 

Raymond  G.  Hancock  and  Company  and 
the  trustees  of  the  House  of  Hancock  have 
entered  into  a general  contract  for  the  con- 
struction and  sale  of  all  the  houses  required  by 
the  Syndicate.  In  order  to  bring  properties 
within  the  terms  of  the  contract  it  is  only  neces- 
sary for  the  trustees  to  purchase  the  vacant 
property  and  order  the  houses  built  according 
to  plans  and  specifications  then  furnished  or 
designated.  This  contract  is  based  on  an  equal 
division  between  Raymond  G.  Hancock  and 
Company  and  the  investors,  of  the  profits  of 
the  operation  remaining  after  the  payment  to 
the  investors  of  interest  at  the  rate  of  6 per  cent 
for  the  period  of  each  investment. 

In  order  to  carry  out  this  general  plan  of 
profit  sharing,  the  trustees  of  the  House  of 
Hancock,  when  they  issue  preferred  trust  cer- 
tificates, also  issue  iirofit-sharing  certiheates 
calling  for  the  same  number  of  shares;  one-half 
to  Raymond  G.  Hancock  and  Company  and 


183 


184 


HOMES 


FOR  WORKMEN 


Absence  of  Monotony  in  Architectural  Design  is  a Feature  of  Alton  Homes 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


185 


rfeoE. 
Type  B-j 


Put  Plan 


Type  7 


Type  K-j 


House  Types  at  Alton,  111. 


186 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


one-half  to  the  investor.  These  proht  par- 
ticipating shares  have  no  value,  bear  no  interest 
and  earn  no  dividend  until  the  preferred  cer- 
tificates of  the  same  series  have  been  retired 
with  interest,  after  which  they  participate  pro- 
rata in  the  remaining  profit.  Each  investment 
in  the  preferred  trust  certificates  is  for  a period 
of  five  years. 

“Overhead”  Carried  by  Building 
Firm 

d'he  building  firm  in  addition  to  the  actual 
construction  of  the  houses  furnishes  the  syndi- 
cate with  offices,  branch  offices,  telephone 
service,  stenographers,  bookkeepers,  postage 
and  other  incidental  expenses;  superintends  the 
sale  of  the  houses,  collects  the  initial  and 


monthly  installments,  and  maintains  general 
o^■ersight  of  the  properties  during  the  period  of 
construction  and  the  time  required  by  the  pur- 
chaser to  pay  for  the  property.  These  items  of 
overhead  expense  not  being  divisible  between 
the  individual  properties,  the  building  firm  is 
paid  the  actual  cost  of  the  properties,  not 
including  these  items,  and,  to  cover  these  items, 
up  to  lo  per  cent  of  the  actual  cost  of  the 
properties  is  paid  to  it,  pro\dded,  however,  that 
in  no  case  is  more  than  $300  charged  against 
any  indiffidual  property  under  this  head. 


The  title  to  all  the  property  in  which  any 
money  of  the  syndicate  is  invested  is  taken  and 
held  by  the  trustees  for  the  benefit  of  the  cer- 
tificate holders  in  proportion  to  their  holdings. 
The  title  to  the  property  is  not  transferred  to 
the  purchaser  until  all  of  the  syndicate’s  invest- 
ment has  been  repaid.  When  loans  are  placed  on 
the  properties,  the  title  is  temporarily  trans- 
ferred to  a third  person  who  executes  all  of  the 
instruments  necessary  to  perfect  the  loan  and 
immediately  retransfers  the  title  to  the  trustees. 

This  is  done  to  protect  the  general  assets  of 
the  syndicate  against  deficiency  decrees  in  case 
of  foreclosure  proceedings  as  to  individual 
properties  during  the  life  of  the  loan. 

Hancock  and  Company  purchase  all  material 
and  contract  for  all  labor  in  their  own  names,  so 
that  the  only  liability  of  the  syndicate  is  to  the 
building  firm  and  in  the  contract  the  building 
firm  expressly  releases  all  the  certificate  holders 
from  personal  liability  by  reason  of  the  contract 
and  agrees  to  look  solely  to  assets  of  the 
syndicate  for  its  compensation. 

This  is  done  for  the  protection  of  the  certifi- 
cate holders. 

Housing  Survey  Made  of  District 

A business  arrangement  along  the  above  lines 
having  been  entered  into  with  the  citizen  sub- 
scribers of  .Alton,  the  building  syndicate  at 
once  made  a careful  survey  of  the  district,  taking 
into  account  the  number  of  industries,  their 
capital  investment,  annual  output,  number  of 
skilled  and  unskilled  workers  at  present  em- 
ployed, and  the  number  required  to  bring  the 
plants  up  to  the  required  standard;  also  a sur- 
vey of  the  housing  accommodations  and  general 
li\-ing  conditions  among  the  workmen. 

The  first  group  of  houses  constructed  con- 
sisted of  fifteen  houses  in  the  Woodlawn  sub- 
division. These  lots,  at  the  time  of  purchase 
by  the  building  syndicate,  did  not  have  water 
or  sewer  connections  or  sidewalks.  These  im- 
provements were  put  in  before  and  during  con- 
struction, and  today  the  houses  are  completed 
and  occupied,  with  all  the  improvements  and 
conveniences  of  modern  city  apartments  and 
the  added  advantage  of  being  individual  homes. 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


187 


m o « ft  "(5 . a c k 

BANK  FLOOR  *j|'^  JU  | 

35  NO- DEARBORN  ST.  ^ 

y^l3U>§:a.i|0 

June 

Twenty-ninth 

Nineteen 

Eighteen 


Southern  Pine  Association, 

Nev;  Orleans,  Louisans. 

Gentlemen : - 

In  reply  to  your  Inquiry  of  even 
date  regarding  our  experience  in  the  use  of 
Southern  Pine,  would  say: 

We  have  been  using  Southern  Pine 
for  something  over  eleven  (11)  years  in  the 
construction  of  homes  in  various  cities,  and 
more  especially  in  the  City  of  Chicago,  where 
we  have  the  distinction  of  being  the  largest 
strictly  home  building  organization. 

W'e  are  enthusiasts  over  frame  con- 
struction, inasmuch  as  it  gives  an  opportunity 
to  build  a larger  variety  of  homes  than  is 
possible  to  build  with  any  other  material. 
Again  we  believe  that  our  fram.e  houses  as  a 
rule  are  more  satisfactory  to  the  home  pur- 
chasers . 


TELEPHONE 
CENTRAL  I 7B7 


In  our  operations  in  the  City  of  Alton 
where  we  will  build  from  two  to  three  hundred 
houses  this  year,  v;e  are  using  a great  deal  of 
Southern  Pine  for  trim,  and  almost  exclusively. 
Southern  ^Ine  for  all  construction.  It  is  with 
great  pleasure  that  v;e  recommend  the  use  of 
Southern  Pine  in  all  branches  of  home  construction, 
and  we  believe  that  anyone  who  will  make  a careful 
study  of  home  building  cannot  find  a better  or 
more  satisfactory  material  for  home  construction. 


rgh/ro 


188 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


I he  second  group  of  houses  consisted  of 
sixteen  houses  in  the  northern  part  of  the  city, 
d'hey  are  of  much  the  same  general  t>^]:)e  as  the 
first  groiq). 

Terms  On  Wh  ic  h H Otises 
Are  Sold 

A sales  ])lan  has  been  e\a)lved  whereby  the 
purchaser  usually  a mechanic  or  man  whose 
financial  condition  will  not  permit  the  purchase 
of  vacant  i)roperty  and  the  Iniilding  of  a house 
on  the  terms  usually  obtainable  — is  required 
to  make  an  initial  ])ayment  of  only  $200  on  any 
house  of  which  the  sales  [>rice  is  less  than  $6,000, 
and  to  make  monthly  payments  of  ^ of  i ]>er 
cent  of  the  total  price  i>er  month.  For  instance. 


a man  buys  a home  for  $4,000;  he  pays  $200 
cash  and  makes  monthly  j^ayments  of  $30. 
The  monthly  payments  include  the  interest  on 
all  deferred  payments  and  ai)proximately  the 
rental  value  of  the  property.  A home  selling 
plan  of  this  kind  has  proven  very  attractive  and 
helpful  both  to  the  skilled  mechanic  and  to  the 
man  who  is  dependent  on  a smaller  wage. 

The  purchaser  of  a home,  who  buys  during 
construction,  has  the  privilege  of  selecting 
paint,  interior  decorations,  etc.,  and  when  it 
can  be  done  without  additional  expense,  minor 
changes  are  made  in  the  house  to  meet  his 
needs  and  taste. 

As  a rule  the  houses  being  built  in  Alton  are 
sold  before  they  are  completed. 


A MODERN  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING  DEVELOP- 
MENT AT  PERRYVILLE,  MD. 

IR'  C.  STANIUn’  TAYLOR 

Project  PPigineer  oj  Majui  and  MacNeille,  Jrchitects  and  Construction  Engineers 


OXF  of  the  interesting  housing  develoj)- 
ments  which,  though  brought  about 
through  war  pressure,  has  not  been 
allowed  to  suffer  through  ill-advised  and  hast}' 
l^lanning,  is  that  in  connection  with  the  plant 
of  the  Atlas  Powder  Company  at  Perry ville, 
Md. 

Under  the  direction  of  Perry  R.  AlacX’eille, 
in  charge  of  the  Housing  Branch  of  the  Ord- 
nance Department,  the  accompanying  town 
plan  and  building  designs  were  })repared  in  the 
office  of  Mann  & MacXeille,  N^ew  ATrk  archi- 
tects and  town  planners,  and  from  these  plans 
over  200  houses  in  the  industrial  village  at 
Perryville  have  been  completed,  as  many  more 
being  under  construction. 

The  plans  were  first  submitted  for  approval 
to  Major  Sinclair,  in  charge  of  Government 
construction  in  Perryville.  In  the  construction 
of  the  buildings,  the  sketch  plans  were  submit- 


ted to  i\Ir.  \V.  E.  Stevens,  local  architect  for 
the  Atlas  Powder  Company,  and  working 
drawings  and  supervision  were  carried  out  by 
him. 

Town  Planning  Features 

The  site  of  the  village  is  especially  endowed 
in  the  way  of  natural  features,  lying  as  it 
does  on  the  gently  sloping  banks  of  the  broad 
Susquehanna  River,  approximately  forty-five 
miles  west  of  Philadelphia,  and  thirty  miles 
northeast  of  Baltimore.  The  dark  green 

foliage  of  an  oak  forest  forms  a natural 
background. 

Equally  dividing  the  village  is  a partially 
wooded  ravine  on  the  edge  of  which  stands  an 
old  mansion  surrounded  by  fine  old  button 
wood  and  locust  trees,  with  here  and  there 
groups  of  magnificent  boxwoods  of  a hundred 
years  growth.  The  manse  has  been  remodeled 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


189 


Type  D-j 


Type  D-2 


Types  of  Homes  in  the  Perryville,  Md.,  Housing  Development 


190 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


into  a house  for  the  suj^erintendent,  and  the 
grounds  ke])t  intact. 

As  this  section  is  unsuitable  for  building  pur- 
])oses,  it  has  been  laid  out  as  a })ark  and  grounds 
for  the  public  school,  which  has  a commanding 
site  overlooking  the  village  and  river. 

( )ther  recreation  grounds  have  been  designed 
for  the  west  end  of  the  village,  suitably  ])lanted 
with  shrubs  and  trees,  and  are  large  enough  for 
])ublic  gatherings  and  activities. 

Along  the  top  of  the  bluff,  between  the  road 
and  river,  walks  have  been  laid  out  leading  to 
and  from  the  community  building  in  the  center, 
d'he  existing  foliage  has  been  augmented  by 
the  ])lanting  of  additional  shrubs  and  trees. 
Suitable  shade  trees,  j)lanted  forty  feet  apart, 
have  been  designed  for  the  streets. 

'The  principal  aim  of  the  jdanting  and  jrark- 
ing  scheme  has  been  to  tie  together  the  natural 
existing  landscape  units  by  connecting  walks 
and  })lanting  in  a way  to  form  unity  of  design 
with  the  welfare  building  at  the  center. 

In  the  general  i)lan  of  the  streets  an  elTort 
was  made  to  lay  out  as  many  streets  at  right 
angles  with  the  river  as  the  conformity  of  the 
land  wt)uld  allow,  thus  allowing  vistas  from  the 
house  down  to  the  water,  while  the  avenues  run 
parallel  to  the  mill,  curving  as  the  contour  of 
the  land  demands. 


Houses  of  Frame  and  Brick  Veneer 

Most  of  the  buildings  in  this  village  are  of 
frame  construction,  a few  houses  being  of  brick 
veneer,  having  white  pine  for  all  exterior  mill 
work,  and  interior  trim  also  of  pine  and  white 
wood.  The  exterior  walls  are  covered  with 
novelty  siding  of  pine,  and  roofing  of  cedar 
shingles.  The  buildings  which  are  being  con- 
structed are  as  follows: 

Approximately  400  houses  of  from  4 to  7 
rooms,  with  all  modern  improvements  includ- 
ing fireplaces,  large  verandas,  special  exterior 
entrances  leading  to  the  kitchen  and  the  cellar. 

6 Boarding  houses  of  type  shown  in  accom- 
panying illustration  B-4. 

I Club  House  shown  in  accompanying  illus- 
tration. 

I School  --  illustration  N-i. 

Description  of  Individual 
Buildings 

The  individual  dwelling  houses  as  shown  in 
illustrations  I)-i,  l)-2,  D-3,  D-4,  D-5,  and  D-6 
are  of  modern  colonial  t\pe,  each  house  being 
])laced  on  a sufficiently  large  tract  of  ground  to 
allow  space  for  planting  and  gardening. 

Following  is  an  outline  specification  of  a 
typical  house  at  Perryville: 


Club  House  at  Perryville,  Md. 


Boarding  House  and  Floor  Plans,  Perryville 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


191 


fcAiEMtNT  A N 


School  Biiilding,  Perrymlle^  Md. 


192 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


Sluds  u'if/i  Building  Paper  and  Novelty  Siding 
on  the  Exterior  and  Wall  Board  on  the 
dnterior 

MASOXKV: 

Excavation  lo  be  performed  for  walls,  piers  and  foot- 
in<^s  to  the  depth  indicated  on  the  drawings. 

Footings  of  stone  concrete  6 inches  thick  and  12  inches 
wider  than  the  masonry  work  aljove. 

FonnJations  for  the  excavated  portion  of  the  building 
shall  be  of  concrete  walls  8 inches  thick  on  concrete 
footings  6 inches  thick  and  20  inches  wide.  For  the 
une.xcavated  portion  of  the  building  the  foundations 
shall  consist  of  8 x 8-inch  concrete  piers  with  curtain 
walls  between  same  of  expanded  metal  lath  covered  on 
both  sides  with  cement  mortar  i inch  thick,  total 
thickness  of  curtain  wall  approximately  2 inches. 

Chimneys  to  be  of  brick  lined  with  terra  cotta  flue 
linings. 

CARPENTRY: 

Framing  of  the  entire  building  above  the  foundation 
shall  be  done  with  sound  lumber  purchasable  in  the 
local  market.  Where  not  called  for  to  the  contrary  on 
the  drawings,  the  size  of  the  lumber  shall  be  as  follows: 

Floor  beams,  2x6  inches,  16  inches  on  center. 

Ceiling  beams,  2x4  inches,  16  inches  on  center. 

Rafters,  2x6  inches,  18  inches  on  center. 

.Studs,  2x4  inches,  16  inches  on  center. 

Sills  and  Girders  built  up  of  2 x 6-inch  pieces  to 
thickness  rc(|uired. 

LAider  floors  shall  be  ])rovided  throughout  the  first 
and  second  story  and  shall  l>e  of  " 8-inch  ship-lap  pine 
boards. 

Exterior  wall  sluds  shall  be  co\-ered  on  the  exterior 
with  building  paper  and  novelty  siding  of  j)ine,  showing 
about  6 inches  to  the  weather. 


Exterior  doors  shall  be  iFs-inch  thick  of  pine  or 
cypress,  panelled  and  glazed  as  shown. 

hiterior  doors  shall  be  i^-inch  thick  of  pine  or  fir. 
They  shall  be  five  cross  panel  doors  of  stock  design. 

Interior  and  exterior  mitt  work  shall  be  of  cypress  or 
pine  throughout  as  the  contractor  may  prefer. 

Roofs  shall  be  covered  with  cedar  shingles  16  inches 
long  and  exposed  5T2  inches  to  the  weather. 

Finished  floors  shall  be  of  oak  ^-inch  thick  through- 
out the  master’s  portion  of  the  first  floor  and  of  N.  C. 
[)ine  throughout  the  remaining  portion  of  the  first 
floor  and  throughout  the  entire  second  floor. 

Watt  board  shall  be  used  against  all  interior  wall 
surfaces  and  ceilings  throughout  the  entire  first  and 
second  story  of  the  buikling.  This  wall  board  shall  be 
in  quality  similar  to  Adamant  plaster  board  or  other 
approced  manufacture  eciually  good,  d'his  board  shall 
be  held  in  j)lace  by  wooden  battens  x inches  and 
arranged  so  as  to  form  j)anels  as  shown  on  the  drawings. 

Finished  hardware  for  doors  and  windows  as  well 
as  the  rough  hardware  necessary  for  the  framing  of  the 
building  shall  be  provided  and  set  by  the  contractor. 

Flashing  shall  be  done  with  I.  X.  tin  in  valleys, 
around  chimneys,  over  the  tops  of  windows  and  wher- 
ever necessary  to  make  the  building  weather  and  water 
tight.  Caj)  flashing  to  be  used  against  masonry  con- 
struction. 

Painti)ig  shall  be  done  on  all  exterior  woodwork  with 
two  coats  of  lead  and  oil  paint  as  per  sample  approved 
by  the  architect.  Interior  finished  woodwork  through- 
out the  master’s  portion  of  the  building  shall  be  stained 
and  wa.xed,  and  throughout  the  servants  portion  of  the 
building  it  shall  be  veneered  in  a natural  color.  The 
floors  throughout  shall  be  filled  and  shellaced. 

PLUMBING: 

The  contractor  shall  provide  and  install  the  drainage 
and  water  supply  pipes  throughout  the  building  and 


PERRYVILLE.MD. 
riOVSING  BRANCH 

PERRY  Rr^ACNtlCkE  tN  CHABCE. 

INDUSTRIAL  SERVICE  SECTION 
ORDNANCE  DEPARTMENT. U-5.A 


HOUSING  DEVELOPMENT 

POR, 

ATLAS  POWDER  CO. 


Plot  Plan,  Perryville,  Md. 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


193 


.‘1  Street  of  Homes,  Perryville,  Md. 


extend  same  to  a point  i ft.  outside  of  the  foundation 
walls.  Cast  iron  pipes  shall  be  used  for  the  drainage 
system  for  sizes  2 inches  and  over,  and  standard  gal- 
vanized iron  pipe  shall  be  used  throughout  for  the 
water  supply  system  and  other  pipes  2 inches  in  diam- 
eter and  under. 

He  shall  run  hot  and  cold  water  pipes  to  all  fixtures 
except  water  closets,  where  and  as  shown  on  the 
drawings. 

The  contractor  shall  install  fixtures  of  the  following 
description  and  quality: 

Kitchen  sink  to  be  20  x 30  inches  Standard  porcelain 
enamel  roll  rim  sink  with  Integral  back  and  fitted  with 
N.  P.  faucets  and  trimmings. 

Closet  combination  shall  be  of  Pierce,  Butler  & 
Pierce  manufacture,  known  as  their  “Victor”  type 
with  china  low  down  tank  and  Engle  ball  cock  with 
Miller  oak  seat  and  cover. 

Bath  tub  shall  be  of  porcelain  enamel  of  Standard 
manufacture  5 feet  o inches  long  and  fitted  with 
N.  P.  faiJcets,  waste  and  overflow  and  other  fittings 
complete. 

Lavatory  shall  be  of  Standard  manufacture  known 
as  their  “Beverly”  type  and  fitted  with  N.  P.  faucets, 
traps,  chain,  plug  and  strainer  complete. 

The  work  shall  be  installed  in  accordance  with  the 
rules  and  regulations  of  the  municipal  authorities  hav- 
ing jurisdiction. 

HEATING: 

The  contractor  shall  provide  and  install  a hot  air 
heating  apparatus  with  tin  cellar  and  wall  pipes,  iron 
registers,  and  register  boxes,  wooden  cold  air  duct,  a 
furnace  of  a manufacture  to  be  approved  by  the 
architects. 

He  shall  install  the  heating  system  in  accordance 
with  the  architects’  layout  of  same  or  a layout  ap- 
proved by  them  and  shall  guarantee  to  heat  all  portions 
of  the  building  where  registers  are  placed  to  70°  in  zero 
weather. 


ELECTRIC  WIRING: 

The  contractor  shall  provide  and  install  electric 
wiring  in  “Knob  and  Tube”  work  and  run  same 
from  a point  where  the  electric  current  enters  the 
building,  to  connect  with  all  outlets  shown  on  the 
drawings. 

He  shall  provide  fixture  lugs  where  necessary  and 
leave  outlets  ready  for  the  connection  of  the  fixtures. 

He  shall  provide  and  set  a cut-out  switch  and  fuse 
box. 

He  shall  install  a front  door  bell  with  push  button, 
wiring  and  batteries  complete,  to  ring  in  the  kitchen. 

He  shall  perform  the  work  in  accordance  with  the 
rules  and  regulations  of  the  Board  of  Fire  Under- 
writers having  jurisdiction,  and  he  shall  obtain  and 
deliver  to  the  architects,  their  preliminary  certificate 
of  approval  of  his  work. 

A Commodious  Boarding  House 

The  type  of  boarding  house  which  has  been 
designed  for  Perryville  is  a two-story  Colonial 
building  having  forty-four  single  rooms,  two 
double  rooms,  lounging  rooms,  large  front  bal- 
conies and  kitchen  and  dining  room.  A feature 
of  this  design  is  the  provision  of  a small  two- 
room  and  bath  apartment  directly  accessible 
from  the  kitchen  by  a private  entrance.  This 
apartment  is  for  the  use  of  the  caretaker  of  the 
building.  Central  lavatories  have  been  installed 
at  convenient  points.  This  boarding  house  can 
be  operated  by  a small  family. 

The  Club  house,  which  is  illustrated  here- 
with, is  a building  which  may  be  used  as  a 
community  center.  It  is  eriui])ped  on  the  first 
floor  with  a large  lounge  and  i'>eriodical  room. 


194 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


Type  D-21 


SECOND 

FLOOt 

?LAM 


Type  D-p 


3tco*»«  PUil 


Type  D-6 


Type  D-20 


Types  of  Homes  in  theiPerryville, 


Md.,  Housing  Development 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


195 


billiard  room,  retiring  room,  coat  closets, 
lavatories  and  kitchen.  Meals  are  usually 
served  in  the  lounging  room  or,  in  the  case  of  a 
large  assemblage,  the  large  auditorium  on  the 
second  floor  is  used  for  a bancjuet  or  dinner 
room.  The  second  floor  is  largely  taken  up 
with  the  auditorium,  stage  and  dressing  rooms 
for  men  and  women.  There  have  also  been  pro- 
vided ante-rooms  and  a serving  room  in  case 
a banquet  or  dinner  is  served  in  the  auditorium. 
In  general,  this  is  a typical  community  building 
rather  than  a club  house  and  no  living  cjuarters 
are  provided  either  for  guests  or  servants. 

The  School  building  as  shown  in  accompany- 
ing illustration,  is  a four-room  unit  with  neces- 
sary cloak  rooms,  library,  teachers’  rooms  and 


play  rooms  for  boys  and  girls,  together  with 
manual  training  shop.  This  building  is  one 
story  in  height  but  is  so  designed  that  additional 
class  rooms  may  be  added  by  the  construction 
of  wings  to  the  present  building.  The  applica- 
tion of  flexibility  of  design  to  a school  building 
in  a growing  community  is  a feature  which 
should  not  be  overlooked. 

The  general  layout  of  this  village  is  one 
which  is  certain  to  result  in  satisfaction  on  the 
part  of  tenants,  and  is  conducive  to  healthy 
civic  life  and  growth.  Owing  to  advantageous 
geographical  location  and  careful  town  plan- 
ning features,  this  village  is  destined  to  be  one  of 
the  attractive  industrial  developments  of 
America. 


196 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


House  Types  at  Middletou'u,  Ohio 


Homes  on  Sutphen  Avenue,  Middletown,  Ohio 


MIDDLETOWN,  OHIO 

MANUFACTURERS’  FINANCIAL  ASSISTANCE  TO  WORKMEN  MAKES  POSSIBLE  HOME- 
BUILDING ON  EASY  TERMS— CITY  AUTHORITIES  CO-OPERATE 


WITH  the  city’s  population  increasing 
at  the  rate  of  ten  per  cent  a year, 
manufacturers  of  Middletown  have 
been  keenly  interested  in  the  housing  develop- 
ments there,  and  have  facilitated  the  financing 
of  new  home  construction  by  money  deposited 
with  the  building  and  loan  associations,  and  by 
giving  material  and  moral  support  to  workmen 
desirous  of  owning  their  own  homes. 

The  actual  development  has  been  effected 
by  real  estate  men  and  realty  corporations 
independent  of  the  industrial  plants  and 
through  “Own  Your  Home”  campaigns  and 
the  inducement  of  easy  terms  of  purchase. 
Middletown  has  a high  percentage  of  home- 
owners. 


The  Single  Home  Unit  the  Idea 

Construction  has  followed  the  idea  of  the 
single  home  unit,  and  while  types  vary  from 
the  four-room  cottage  to  the  ten-room  man- 
sion, each  has  its  setting  in  a comfortably 
expansive  yard,  and  flats  and  apartment  houses 
have  been  neglected  in  the  preference  for  a 
real  individual  home. 

The  city  authorities  have  co-operated  in  the 
extension  of  service  facilities.  On  application 
of  a majority  of  frontage  owners  along  a new 
street,  sewers,  sidewalks,  curbs  and  service 
connections  will  be  extended,  paid  for  by  the 
city,  and  bonds  issued  for  the  required  costs. 
The  total  costs  are  then  apportioned  to  the 
frontage  of  the  abutting  lots,  and  assessments 


Illinois  Avenue,  M iddlelown,  Ohio 
1<)7 


198 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


are  levied  according  to  the  benefits,  these  assess- 
ments being  collectable  with  the  regular  taxes 
and  spread  over  a period  of  ten  years. 

The  great  lumber  mills  of  the  South  have 


House  Type  loj,  M iddletown,  Ohio 


poured  their  products  into  this  city  of  homes, 
and  architects  have  transformed  them  into 
monuments  of  comfort  and  beauty,  real  homes 
in  a real  community  of  home  lovers. 

Specialized  in  Five  and  Six-room 
Homes 

Middletown’s  largest  realty  company,  in- 
corporated in  1909,  has  developed  six  subdivi- 
sions, specializing  in  five-room  and  six-room 
homes  with  modern  conveniences.  The  realty 
company  sells  on  contracts  with  a ten  per  cent 
cash  payment  and  a monthly  provision  for 
one  per  cent  of  the  purchase  price.  The  plan 
has  proven  popular  and  within  the  means  of 
the  average  family  man.  Since  the  company 
began  operations  many  home  purchasers  have 
voluntarily  increased  their  monthly  payments, 
and  paid  out  the  contracts  in  advance  of  the 
expiration  term.  The  steadily  increasing  values 
of  well-constructed  homes  in  good  subdivisions 
have  further  justified  both  the  company  and 
the  buyer.  A drive  through  Middletown’s 
residence  sections  will  show  street  after  street 
lined  with  comfortable,  well-kept  homes,  with 
restricted  and  protected  surroundings  that 
insure  permanent  desirability  as  a place  to 
live  in,  peace  and  quiet,  and  the  individual 
adornments  in  the  way  of  plants,  shrubbery  and 
gardens  add  interest  to  the  environment. 


FIRESTONE  PARK,  AKRON,  OHIO 

A SPLENDIDLY  CONCEIVED  HOUSING  DEVELOPMENT  OE  THE  EIRESTONE 

TIRE  AND  RUBBER  COMPANY 

By  H.  S.  FIRESTONE 

President  of  the  Firestone  Tire  and  Rubber  Company 


IT  was  the  Firestone  idea  from  the  beginning 
to  build  here  a community  with  all  the 
delights  of  small  town  life,  yet  with  all 
the  advantages  of  proximity  to  a large  city. 

Mr.  Ailing  DeForrest,  one  of  the  foremost 
landscape  architects  of  the  United  States,  was 
brought  to  Akron  to  lay  out  Firestone  Park. 
Many  plans  were  considered  before  the  final 
plan  was  accepted.  The  improvements  and  the 
amount  of  money  already  invested  in  Firestone 
Park  are  great,  but  the  results  speak  for  them- 
selves. We  have  developed  over  300  acres  of 
land.  Thete  are  300  more  acres  which  will  be 
developed  soon.  We  have  nine  miles  of  sanitary 
sewer,  five  miles  of  storm  drain,  one-half  mile 


of  which  is  6 feet  in  diameter.  We  have  seven 
and  one-half  miles  of  water  main,  three  and  one- 
half  miles  of  street  paving  completed,  and  we 
expect  to  complete  another  five  and  one-half 
miles  this  season.  We  have  six  miles  of  cement 
sidewalk  completed,  and  expect  to  complete 
six  more  miles  this  summer.  The  main  Fire- 
stone Boulevard  is  no  feet  wide  for  a distance 
of  1,500  feet,  branching  off  into  two  boulevards 
each  80  feet  in  width.  There  is  a community 
park  of  sixteen  acres  in  the  center,  and  at  the 
head  of  this  park  stands  the  largest  and  best 
equipped  school  in  the  State  of  Ohio.  It  will  be 
complete  and  in  operation  in  the  fall.  We 
already  have  a thriving  church  which  is 


A Group  of  Homes  on  Firestone  Boulevard,  Firestone  Park,  Akron,  Ohio.  In  this  Development  Every  Effort  Made  to 

Preserve  the  Trees  Standing  on  the  Groiuid 

199 


200 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


Plot  Plan,  Firestone  Park 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


201 


Type  CC  House 


Type  CF  House  ami  Floor  Plan 


House  Types  at  Firestone  Park,  Akron,  Ohio 


202 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


attracting  “standing  room  only”  crowds  every 
Sunday.  Two  churches  have  announced  that 
they  desire  to  come  to  Firestone  Park.  One  is  a 
Methodist  church,  which  has  offered  to  put  up 
a $30,000  building,  and  the  other  is  a Lutheran 
church. 

Firestone  Park  is  a church-going  community 
and  we  are  ])roud  of  the  fact. 

d'he  new  Y.  W.  C.  A.  building  has  forty-four 
rooms  and  will  house  seventy-live  girls,  d'he 
restaurant  seats  125. 

We  are  going  to  make  Firestone  Park  the 
best  ])art  of  Akron  to  live  in  and  to  bring  up  a 
family.  Every  one  has  heard  of  the  Firestone 
Club  House.  In  the  great  auditorium  activities 
are  constantly  going  on.  d'he  restaurant  we 
think  has  done  much  to  reduce  the  high  cost 
of  living  in  Firestone  Park.  The  whole  structure 
has  |)aid  its  own  way  and  Akron  can  be  proud 
of  the  fact  that  it  has  been  a model  for  other 
industries  in  other  cities. 

Win.  H.  Kroeger,  manager  of  the  Coventry 
Land  and  Improvement  Com])any,  subsidiary 
to  the  Firestone  d'ire  and  Rubber  Com]:)any, 
says  of  the  Firestone  Park  development: 


“We  have  constructed  approximately  600 
houses  of  which  practically  525  are  frame. 
These  houses  range  in  price  from  $2,400  to 
$6,000.  They  are  mostly  five  six  and  seven- 
room  houses  with  basements  and  finished  attics; 
hot-air  heat  and  bath,  sanitary  sewers,  storm 
drains,  water  mains  and  gas  mains  have  been 
constructed,  sidewalks  have  been  laid  and  all 
the  streets  paved.  Planting  will  be  done  this 
fall,  d'he  street  lighting  equipment  includes 
ornamental  posts  and  underground  cables.  All 
telephone  and  house  service  lines  are  in  the  rear 
of  the  lots,  there  being  no  poles  or  wires  on  the 
streets. 

“We  feel  that  this  subdivision  is  one  of  the 
most  up-to-date  in  this  section  of  the  country 
and  the  people  of  this  city  certainly  appreciate 
what  we  have  done  in  laying  out  a beautiful 
residential  section. 

“d'hese  homes  are  being  sold  on  the  basis  of 
5 per  cent  down  and  i per  cent  per  month. 
This  I i)er  cent  includes  the  interest,  taxes  and 
insurance.  The  employees  especially  have 
found  this  to  be  a good  opportunity  for  them 
to  secure  a home.” 


t 

fl 

Three  Family  Cottage  in  the  Housing  Development  at  Derby,  Conn.,  Built  for  Miss  Frances 
E.  Osborne.  Murphy  or  Dana,  Architects 


DERBY,  CONNECTICUT 

COTTAGES  BUILT  FOR  MISS  FRANCES  OSBORNE,  MURPHY  & DANA,  ARCHITECTS 


Dates  of  Construction:  House  No.  i — 1909-10; 
House  No.  2 — 1911-12;  House  No.  4 — 1913- 
14;  House  No.  5 — 1915-16. 

Cost:  Per  family,  Houses  i to  5 — $2,^25; 
Type  No.  6 — $1,561. 

Rents:  Per  month.  Houses  i to  5 — $16  to  $18; 
Type  No.  .6 — $10  to  $12. 

Type:  One  row  of  two-,  three- and  four-family 
houses.  One  row  of  connected  two-family 
houses.  Number  of  rooms  per  family: 
Houses  Nos.  i to  5 — 6 rooms  and  bath  with 
cellar;  Type  No.  6 — 4 rooms  and  bath  with 
cellar. 


Construction:  Rubble  stone  foundation  walls, 
concrete  cellar,  floors  and  brick  chimneys; 
usual  frame  type  of  construction  above. 

Exterior  Finish:  Walls — Clapboard  shingles  or 
stucco.  Roofs — Shingles.  Clapboards  and 
shingles  are  either  painted  or  stained.  Porch 
floors — Georgia  pine. 

Interior  Finish:  Walls — Plastered  two  coats. 
Floors — Single  N.  C.  pine — stained.  Doors 
and  trim — Stock  doors  N.  C.  pine  trim, 
stained. 

Heating:  Separate  hot-air  furnaces,  one  for 
each  family. 

Lighting:  Gas  throughout. 


203 


204  HOMES  FORWORKMEN 


Three  Family  Cottage,  Type  No.  2 


Two  Family  Cottage,  Type  No.  6 


Four  Family  Cottage,  Type  No.  4 


Cottage  Types  at  Derby,  Conn. 


Built  for  IMiss  Frances  E.  Osborne 
Murphy  b°  Dana,  Architects 


HOMES 


FOR  WORKMEN 


205 


Floor  Plan  No.  6 Cottage 


Floor  Plan  No.  2 Cottage 


Floor  Plan  No.  4 Cottage 


No.  I Type  Cottage  and  Floor  Plans  of  Other  Types,  Derby,  Conn. 


206 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


House  Types.  Eudee  Mivwr,  Bristol,  Conn 


One  hundred  and  two  of  these  Houses  were  Erected  in  102  Days  at  Endee  Manor,  Bristol,  Conn. 


ENDEE  MANOR,  BRISTOL,  CONN. 

THE  HOUSING  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  NEW  DEPARTURE  MANUFACTURING  COMPANY 

102  HOUSES  WERE  BUILT  HERE  IN  102  DAYS 


Endee  manor  represents  a typical 
industrial  village  of  the  better  type 
which  should  appeal  to  workmen 
desirous  of  providing  proper  living  conditions 
for  themselves  and  their  families  at  moderate 
expense.  It  was  financed  by  the  New  Departure 
Manufacturing  Company,  through  a subsidiary 
organization  created  for  this  purpose,  the  New 
Departure  Realty  Company. 


A tract  of  land  was  purchased  at  the  north 
end  of  Bristol,  within  a short  distance  of  the 
plant. 

The  102  houses  comprising  the  development 
were  built  in  102  days.  Several  types  of  dwell- 
ings are  represented,  single  and  double,  no 
house  holding  more  than  two  families.  There 
are  single  cottages  of  four  and  five  rooms,  four- 
room  bungalows,  four-  and  five-room  flats,  and 


Sherman  Avenue,  Endec  Manor,  Bristol,  Conn. 
207 


208 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


duplex  houses  containing  three  rooms  down- 
stairs and  two  on  the  second  floor. 

'Fhe  company  put  in  modern  improvements 
— gas,  electric  lights  and  ])lumbing  - - but  did 
not  install  furnaces,  for  the  reason  that  as  a 
rule  the  class  of  people  to  whom  the  houses  are 
rented  could  not  afford  to  operate  a furnace. 
There  are  some  exceptions,  however,  and 
several  of  the  tenants  have  installed  their 


own  heating  plants,  for  which  the  company 
will  reimburse  them  should  they  move 
away. 

The  company  also  laid  concrete  walks  and 
curbing,  planted  trees,  started  lawns  and 
gardens,  laid  out  parking  places,  and  graded 
the  streets. 

All  houses  are  rented  to  employees  of  the 
New  Departure  Manufacturing  Company. 


^£sr  CEMETERy 


Plot  Plan,  Endec  Manor,  Bristol,  Conn. 


BUILDING  FIRE-SAFE  FRAME 

DWELLINGS 


EXCERPTS  FROM  “DWELLING  HOUSES,”  A CODE  OF  SUGGESTIONS  FOR  CONSTRUCTION 
AND  FIRE  PROTECTION  RECOMMENDED  BY  THE  NATIONAL 
BOARD  OF  FIRE  UNDERWRITERS 


A WELL-BUILT  frame  dwelling  fully  fire- 
stopped,  and  provided  with  other  pro- 
‘ tective  construction  as  elsewhere  rec- 
ommended, is  practically  on  a par  with  masonry- 
walled  houses  of  same  design  with  wooden 
interior  construction  as  regards  resistance  to 
an  interior  fire;  a fire  well  started  in  either  is 
pretty  sure  to  consume  the  building  if  efficient 
fire-fighting  facilities  are  not  available,  but  the 
chances  of  controlling  such  a fire  in  a properly 
constructed  house  are  very  greatly  increased. 
If  suitable  exits  are  provided  as  elsewhere 
urged,  there  should  be  no  life  hazard  in  either 
type  of  building. 

The  fire-stopping  in  frame  buildings  is  almost 
invariably  carelessly  done,  and  insofar  as  this 
is  true  for  the  walls,  the  danger  to  the  frame 
building  is  greatly  increased  over  that  existing 
in  masonry-walled  buildings.  If  owners  and 
builders  could  be  made  to  realize  the  protection 
secured  by  prudent  and  careful  construction  of 
frame  buildings,  the  annual  loss  now  chargeable 
to  such  buildings  would  be  greatly  reduced,  and 
prejudice  against  them  materially  lessened. 

Note. — The  possibility  of  being  able  to  erect  frame 
buildings  of  wood  which  has  been  chemically  treated 
or  covered  with  fire-resistive  paint  to  make  it  non- 
imflammable,  and  at  an  excess  cost  small  enough  not 
to  be  prohibitive  for  ordinary  dwellings,  has  been  a 
long-cherished  ambition  that  may  soon  be  accomplished. 
The  United  States  Forestry  Service  is  endeavoring  to 
perfect  new  processes  for  such  treatment,  which,  if 
successful  and  applicable  at  prices  within  the  reach  of 
the  average  home  builder,  will  be  a distinct  public 
benefaction,  of  a value  difficult  to  estimate. 

Height  and  Area 

Except  as  herein  provided,  no  frame  dwelling 
shall  exceed  two  and  one-half  stories  or  thirty 


feet  in  height,  and  shall  not  exceed  3,000  square 
feet  in  area.  The  attic  in  a two-and-a-half 
story  house  may  be  used  for  sleeping  rooms,  but 
not  for  living  purposes.  No  family  shall  be 
domiciled  above  the  second  story.  Frame 
dwellings  occupied  by  not  more  than  one 
family  may  be  three  stories  or  thirty-five  feet 
high.  Towers,  turrets  or  minarets  on  such 
buildings  may  exceed  the  foregoing  limit  10 
feet,  provided  the  greatest  horizontal  dimension 
of  such  structure  does  not  exceed  15  feet. 

Within  town  limits  or  other  congested 
localities,  the  combined  area  of  frame  buildings, 
sheds,  and  outhouses  located  on  any  lot  should 
not  exceed  80  per  cent  of  the  lot  area. 

Protection  From  Severe  Fire 
Exposure 

In  no  case  shall  a frame  dwelling  with  wooden 
siding  be  erected  or  altered,  to  extend  within 
5 feet  of  the  side  or  rear  lot  line  within  town 
limits,  nor  within  10  feet  of  another  building, 
unless  the  space  between  the  studs  on  such 
side  be  filled  solidly  with  not  less  than  2^ 
inches  of  brickwork  or  other  equivalent  in- 
combustible material,  and  the  entire  exposed 
side  be  covered  with  at  least  a ^-inch  layer 
of  asbestos  board,  or  ^-inch  of  plaster  board 
back  of  the  wooden  siding.  When  such  walls 
are  thus  filled  and  covered,  their  distance  from 
a side  or  rear  lot  may  be  reduced  to  3 feet;  or 
to  5 feet  from  another  building.  If  the  adjacent 
walls  of  two  buildings  have  no  openings,  and 
are  filled  and  covered  as  above  specified, 
there  need  be  no  limitation  as  to  distance  be- 
tween them. 


209 


210 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


Note  i. — It  is  recommended  that  when  such  build- 
ings are  nearer  than  3 feet  to  a side  or  rear  lot  line,  or  5 
feet  to  another  Imilding,  the  cornices  and  overhanging 
eaves  on  the  side  or  rear  wall  shall  be  of,  or  covered 
iwth,  incombustible  material. 

Note  2. — Some  authorities  recommend  the  use  of 

inch  asbestos  board,  ^g-inch  j)laster  board,  or  other 
incombustible  felt  or  covering  of  same  thickness  under 
all  the  siding  on  frame  dwellings  as  adding  greatly  to 
the  insulation  against  cold  and  to  the  fire-resistance. 

Framing 

b'raming  timbers  should  have  sufficient  size 
and  closeness  of  spacing  to  insure  adetjuate 
strength  even  when  subjected  to  unusual 
stresses.  It  is  poor  economy  to  use  floor  joists 
so  small  that  they  lack  rigidity.  They  are 
always  a source  of  annoyance  due  to  cracking 
c)f  plaster;  rattling  of  lighting  fixtures,  and  other 
defects  resulting  from  a vibrating  floor.  While 
it  is  iiossible  to  secure  rigid  construction  with 
timbers  of  small  cross-section  closely  sjiaced, 
it  is  not  ach'isable  to  do  so  from  the  lire  pro- 
tection standpoint.  Three  small  timbers  having 
the  same  total  cross-section  as  one  large  timber, 
will  burn  through  in  less  than  one-third  the 
time  recpiired  to  consume  the  large  timber,  with 
consequent  danger  of  quick  collapse.  It  is  for 
this  reason  that  balloon  frame  buildings  burn 
so  rapidly;  a fire  well  started  in  one  is  seldom 
controlled  before  the  structure  is  destroyed. 
Other  precautions  being  equal,  the  larger  the 
framing  timber  the  safer  the  structure  as 
regards  lire.  This  is  the  whole  theory  of  “Mill 
or  Slow-Burning  Construction,”  which  is  used 
so  successfully  for  factories. 

Moor  joists  and  rafters  in  frame  dwellings 
shall  be  not  less  than  2 inches  in  thickness 
(commercial  size).  Joists  3 inches  thick  are 
recommended.  They  are  especially  desirable 
for  floors  having  considerable  span.  All  frame 
or  wood  buildings  exceeding  1 5 feet  in  height 
shall  have  their  sills  secured  to  the  foundations 
in  an  approved  manner  and  be  erected  with 
sills,  posts,  girts  and  plates  of  suitable  size  and 
materials  with  proper  mortise  and  tenon  fram- 
ing and  braced  with  studs  at  all  angles ; but  this 
does  not  prohibit  the  use  of  balloon  framing 
with  proper  sills,  and  ribbon  strip  not  less  than 
\]/\  inches  by  5 inches,  and  provided  that  the 


outside  walls  are  fire-stopped  at  each  floor 
level. 

It  is  equally  important  that  the  essential 
structural  features  necessary  to  prevent  spread 
of  lire  through  a dwelling,  be  incorporated  in  a 
frame  house  as  in  any  other  type,  and  the  neces- 
sity for  such  precautions  increases  rapidly  with 
enlargement  of  the  building. 

Division  Walls  in  Rows  of  Frame 
Dwellings 

In  rows  of  frame  dwellings,  the  dividing  walls 
between  houses  shall  be  built  of  brick,  terra- 
cotta, concrete,  or  other  approved  incom- 
bustible material;  or  they  may  be  built  with 
4-inch  studs,  filled  solidly  with  brickwork  laid 
in  mortar,  or  with  other  suitable  incombustible 
material  and  covered  on  each  side  with  at 
least  inch  of  metal  lath  and  plaster,  or 
plaster  board.  Such  dividing  walls  shall  rest 
on  masonry  walls  or  wooden  girders  and  shall 
extend  to  underside  of  roof  boards,  and  a 
flush  mortar  joint  shall  be  laid  between  the  roof 
boards  and  the  walls. 

In  rows  of  more  than  three  houses,  every 
alternate  division  shall  be  constructed  of  brick 
not  less  than  8 inches  thick,  or  concrete  not 
less  than  6 inches  thick.  These  walls  shall 
extend  from  front  to  rear,  be  solid  without 
opening,  and  shall  extend  at  least  2 feet  above 
the  roof,  and  be  coped.  If  such  parapet  be  of 
concrete,  or  if  the  top  six  courses  of  brick  be 
laid  in  Portland  cement  the  coping  may  be 
omitted. 

The  ends  of  floor  beams  entering  such  walls 
from  opposite  sides  shall  be  so  staggered  or 
separated  that  there  shall  be  not  less  than 
4 inches  of  masonry  between  the  beams  where 
they  rest  on  the  walls.  Joists  shall  not  be 
allowed  to  project  through  the  wall. 

If  it  is  impossible  to  secure  at  least  4 inches 
of  solid  masonry  between  joist  ends  when  they 
rest  in  the  wall,  they  should  be  supported  by 
metal  wall  hangers  on  the  surface  of  the  wall. 

Note  i. — The  great  danger  of  a fire  finding  its  way 
through  an  8-inch  bearing  wall  must  be  recognized. 
Even  though  a separation  of  fully  4 inches  is  maintained 
between  the  ends  of  all  the  joists,  there  is  very  likely 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


211 


to  be  some  mortar  joint  left  open,  and  if  so,  a fire  on 
one  side  is  sure  to  go  through  it.  Where  a bearing  wall 
as  thin  as  8 inches  is  used,  great  care  should  be  exer- 
cised in  laying  it  to  insure  a maximum  separation  of 
joist  ends,  and  that  all  brick  joints  are  flushed  full  of 
mortar.  Cement  mortar  is  much  the  best  for  such 
walls. 

Note  2. — There  is  one  class  of  frame  residence 
building  usually  built  in  rows  which  should  be  entirely 
prohibited,  namely,  the  wooden  tenement  house  com- 
monly known  as  “three-decker,”  “four-flatters,”  etc. 
This  class  of  building  is  prevalent  in  manufacturing 
cities,  particularly  in  the  eastern  states.  They  are 
ugly  to  look  at,  and  are  a serious  fire  hazard.  Their 
cheapness  invites  a congested  occupancy  of  inferior 
grade,  demoralizing  in  its  influence  and  a menace  to 
health. 

Reasons  Why  Dwellings  Burn 
Freely  and  the  Remedy 

The  proportion  of  dwellings  which  catch 
fire  and  are  a total  loss,  or  which  have  building 
and  contents  ruined,  is  very  high.  The  reasons 
are  plain.  First,  in  cities  such  buildings  are 
usually  located  in  outer  areas  more  or  less  re- 
mote from  fire  fighting  apparatus.  Many  are 
situated  outside  of  city  limits,  or  in  villages  or 
suburban  developments  where  fire  protection 
appliances  are  meagre  and  unreliable.  Then 
there  are  vast  numbers  scattered  all  over  the 
country  which  are  entirely  unprotected.  Sec- 
ond, dwellings  are  generally  small  and  low,  so 
that  a fire  well  started  before  discovery  is  likely 
to  envelop  all  portions  before  outside  assist- 
ance can  become  effective.  Third,  the  majority 
of  dwellings  are  of  very  combustible  construc- 
tion, with  open  stairways  lined  with  varnished 
or  painted  woodwork  connecting  all  stories,  and 
with  no  provisions  for  arresting  the  spread  of 
fire  from  floor  to  floor  or  from  room  to  room. 
The  cellar  where  the  heating  appliance  is 
usually  located,  often  contains  much  com- 
bustible material,  a combination  which  is 
dangerous.  Moreover  the  cellar  is  more  or 
less  directly  connected  by  open  channels  with 
all  parts  of  the  house,  including  the  garret. 
This  results  from  lack  of  proper  protection 
around  water,  gas  and  steam  pipes,  hot  air 
pipes,  dumb  waiter  shafts,  and  open  spaces 
through  walls  and  partitions.  Fourth,  the 
nature  of  the  occupancy  is  such  that  much  of 


the  time  there  are  not  enough  able-bodied 
occupants  present  to  do  effective  fire  fighting 
from  within. 

These  four  conditions  combined  result  in  the 
enormous  annual  property  fire  loss,  and  the 
sacrifice  of  many  lives.  The  lamentable  feature 
of  the  situation  is  that  a large  part  of  this  loss 
could  be  prevented  by  reasonable  precautions 
in  construction  and  careful  observance  of  the 
ordinary  rules  of  fire  protection.  The  cost  of 
the  former  would  be  comparatively  small;  the 
only  expenditure  for  the  latter  would  be  a little 
thoughtful  vigilance. 

The  cost  of  structural  fire  barriers  necessary 
for  reasonable  protection  for  a dwelling  house 
amounts  to  but  a small  percentage  of  the  total 
cost  of  a building.  For  this  reason  it  is  hoped 
that  architects  and  owners  will  adopt  them  once 
their  attention  is  directed  to  the  reduced  hazard 
resulting  from  a little  intelligent  thought  and 
care.  Speculative  builders  who  erect  houses  to 
sell,  and  build  them  as  cheaply  as  possible  with 
slight  regard  to  their  utility,  will  perhaps  be 
disinclined  to  adopt  alterations  which  will  add 
anything  to  the  cost.  However,  even  these 
should  be  convinced  of  the  advantage  gained 
as  an  advertising  medium  by  the  introduction 
of  such  structural  safety  features.  It  is  reason- 
able to  assume  that  a prospective  home  pur- 
chaser would  be  very  favorably  impressed  with 
the  idea  of  buying  a house  in  which  all  precau- 
tions had  been  taken  against  the  spread  of 
fire. 

Walls— Bearing  Capacity 
of  Soils 

In  the  absence  of  tests,  the  safe  bearing 
capacity  of  different  soils  used  to  sustain  walls 
should  not  exceed  the  values  given  in  the  fol- 
lowing table: 


Tons  per 

Character  of  Soil  Square  Foot 

Soft  Clay I 

Firm  Clay,  fine  sand,  or  layers  of  sand  and  clay 

wet 2 

Clay  or  fine  sand,  firm  and  dry 3 

Hard  Clay,  coarse  sand,  gravel 4 

Hard  Pan 8 to  15 

Rock 15  to  72 


212 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


Footings 

The  footings  for  foundation  walls,  piers  and 
columns  of  masonry  buildings  should  be  con- 
structed of  plain  or  reinforced  concrete.  Stone 
laid  in  cement  mortar  may  be  used  for  footings 
for  frame  buildings,  but  good  concrete  is  better. 

Concrete  for  footings  should  be  made  of  at 
least  one  })art  of  Portland  cement,  and  not 
more  than  2]/2  parts  cd'  sand,  and  5 parts  of 
broken  stone  or  gravel. 

Where  mass  concrete  is  used  for  footings  or 
foundation  the  stone  or  gravel  shall  be  of  such 
size  as  will  pass  through  a two-inch  ring. 
Sufficient  smaller  aggregate  shall  be  added  to 
secure  density. 

Note. — Under  some  conditions  it  is  permissible 
to  embed  large  stones  in  mass  concrete,  it  then  being 
called  “rubble  concrete.” 


no.  4 

rL.A.TE  VII. 


Fig.  I.  — Floor  framing  around  chimney  in  a party 
wall,  to  secure  proper  space  between  ends  of  floor  joists. 

Fig.  2.  — Ordinary  floor  framing  around  a chimney. 
.\11  timbers  2 inches  clear  of  brickwork  and  space  filled 
with  fire-proofing  material. 

Fig.  3.  — Stud  partition  across  back  of  a chimney  show- 
ing proper  method  of  arranging  studs. 

Fig.  4.  — Stud  partition  across  back  of  a fireplace  and 
around  the  ends  of  the  chimney  breast,  showing  proper 
method  of  arranging  studs.  Method  of  fire-stopping  this 
space  is  shown  on  chimney  section,  Plate  I\'. 


Concrete  footings  for  dwellings  with  masonry 
walls  should  be  not  less  than  12  inches  thick. 
Footings  for  foundation  walls  of  frame  dwell- 
ings exceeding  15  feet  in  height  shall  be  not 
less  than  8 inches  vertical  thickness. 

The  bottom  of  footings  shall  rest  upon  solid 
ground  at  a depth  at  least  equal  to  the  frost 
line  below  the  surface,  unless  solid  rock  occurs 
above  this  point ; or  they  may  rest  upon  tiles  or 
ranging  timbers  of  wood  where  necessary.  If 
wooden  footings  are  used  they  should  be  en- 
tirely below  the  level  of  low  water. 

Footings  should  be  so  designed  that  the  loads 
they  sustain  shall  be  uniformly  distributed. 

The  dead  loads  carried  by  the  footings  shall 
include  the  actual  weight  of  the  superstructure 
and  foundations  down  to  the  bottom  of  the 
footing.  All  tanks  or  other  receptacles  for 
liquid  shall  be  figured  as  being  full.  The  live 
load  in  a dwelling  is  sometimes  considerable 
when  account  is  taken  of  pianos,  book-cases, 
heavy  furniture,  rugs,  etc.,  as  well  as  crowded 
assemblages  of  people.  It  should  be  taken  as 
not  less  than  60  pounds  per  square  foot  for  the 
ground  floors,  and  40  pounds  per  square  foot  for 
upper  floors. 

Note. — It  is  poor  economy  to  skimp  footings.  If 
they  are  insufficient  for  the  load  they  carry  settlement 
is  sure  to  come  in  time,  producing  ugly  wall  cracks, 
misfitting  doors,  openings  which  will  let  in  ground 
water  and  other  defects,  wffiich  plague  the  occupants  as 
long  as  the  house  exists.  The  settlement  of  foundations 
is  also  liable  to  produce  chimney  cracks,  and  so  cause 
a fire  hazard. 

.\11  footings  shall  extend  at  least  \]/2  inches 
outward  from  each  side  of  the  bottom  of  the 
foundation  walls  which  rest  upon  them.  In 
no  case  shall  the  load  per  square  foot  under  any 
portion  of  any  footing  due  to  the  combined 
dead,  live,  and  wind  loads  exceed  the  safe 
sustaining  power  of  the  soil  upon  which  the 
footing  rests. 

Footings  and  foundation  walls  shall  be  laid 
in  cement  mortar. 

Foundation  Walls 

Foundation  walls  are  construed  to  include 
all  walls  and  piers  built  below  the  curb  level,  or 
nearest  tier  of  beams  to  the  curb,  or  to  the 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


213 


average  level  of  the  ground  adjoining  the  wall, 
to  serve  as  supports  for  walls,  piers,  columns, 
girders,  posts  or  beams. 

The  foundation  walls  of  frame  structures 
exceeding  15  feet  in  height,  built  of  stone, 
shall  be  not  less  than  16  inches  thick  and  if 
of  brick  or  concrete  not  less  than  12  inches  to 
the  grade  and  8 inches  to  the  underside  of  the 
sill.  If  the  foundation  and  first  story  walls 
are  constructed  of  brick  or  concrete,  the  founda- 
tion walls  shall  be  not  less  than  1 2 inches  thick 
to  the  first  tier  of  beams,  and  8 inches  thick 
from  the  first  to  the  second  tier  of  beams;  or 
if  these  walls  are  constructed  of  stone,  they 
shall  be  not  less  than  18  inches  for  the  founda- 
tion walls,  and  16  inches  for  the  first  story 
wall. 

Major  Structural  Requirements  to 
Protect  Life  and  Prevent 
Spread  of  Fire 

STRUCTURAL  FEATURES  WHICH  EVERY  DWELLING 
SHOULD  POSSESS 

There  are  three  fundamental  structural  fea- 
tures that  should  be  incorporated  into  every 
dwelling  in  order  to  safeguard  properly  the 
lives  of  the  occupants  and  to  resist  destruction 
of  the  building  by  fire.  These  are: 

(a)  Proper  protection  of  stairways  and  other 
vertical  openings. 

(b)  Introduction  of  a secondary  means  of 
exit  from  upper  stories. 

(c)  Providing  a fire-resistive  horizontal  cut- 
off between  the  cellar  or  basement  and  the 
story  above. 

These  three  recjuirements  are  so  inter-related, 
the  accomplishment  of  one  to  a certain  extent 
removes  the  hazard  of  the  others.  Whether 
they  are  given  in  the  order  of  their  relative 
importance  is  difficult  to  say,  and  is  really  im- 
material. They  will  be  discussed  in  the  order 
here  given. 

Danger  From  Open  Stairways 

Even  in  fire-resistive  houses  of  good  construc- 
tion there  is  always  danger  of  intense  fires  due 
to  burning  contents.  Furniture,  hangings. 


bric-a-brac  and  floor  coverings  are  always 
present  sufficient  to  make  a hot  blaze  if  well 
ignited.  The  danger  is  that  the  smoke,  heat 
and  sparks  from  such  a fire  in  any  lower  story 
room  may  be  carried  upward  through  the  house 
by  an  open  stairway,  and  thus  imperil  lives  and 


Plate  X. 

Recommended  Methods  for  Protecting  Wooden  Ceilings  Over 
a Furnace 

For  descriptions,  see  Section  45,  par.  3. 

Figs.  I and  2.  — Sheet  metal.  Note  how  air  space  is 
obtained. 

Fig.  3.  — Layer  of  plaster  board  covering  with  metal. 

Fig.  4.  — (a)  Cellular  asbestos,  {b)  Metal  lath  and 
plaster. 

Fig.  5.  — Two  layers  asbestos  mill  board  covered  with 
metal  lath  and  plaster. 

Fig.  6.  — Detail  showing  a section  of  asbestos  cellular 
board. 

property  on  the  floors  above.  Once  the  gases 
and  air  surrounding  a fire  attain  the  combustion 
temperature  of  wood  and  fabrics,  they  become 
dangerous  because  they  will  ignite  everything 
inflammable  they  touch.  Under  such  cir- 
cumstances a fire  will  jump  from  floor  to  floor 
through  an  open  stairway  with  incredible 
rapidity,  even  though  the  latter  be  c^uite  free  of 
combustible  material. 

It  is  for  this  reason  that  stairs  and  stair  hall- 
ways should,  wherever  practicable,  be  sepa- 
rated from  the  balance  of  the  house  b}'  incom- 
bustible jiartitions  and  lire  doors. 

Complete  enclosure  of  stairs  and  hallways 
is  the  ideal  method  of  protection  against  vertical 
spread  of  fire,  but  it  is  recognized  that  such 


214 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


separation  of  rooms  from  entrance  hallway 
upon  the  hrst  floor  would  be  in  some  cases  an 
objectionable  interference  with  architectural 
efl'ect  and  artistic  furnishing.  As  flres  are  less 
likely  to  originate  in  the  rece])tion  and  living 
rooms  than  in  other  ]K)rtions  of  a house,  there 
would  doubtless  be  occasional  justification  for 
open  connection  between  such  rooms  and  the 
entrance  hallway,  provided  they  are  cut  off 
from  the  kitchen,  dining  room,  and  other  more 
hazardous  jiarts  of  the  house  by  incombustible 
jiartitions.  It  is  very  essential  that  all  other 
portions  of  the  house  be  separated  from  the 


Fig.  I. — Method  of  fire-stopping  at  eaves  when  attic 
floor  joists  are  level  with  plate. 

Fig.  2.  — Same  as  Fig.  i,  except  that  attic  floor  joists 
are  any  distance  below  the  plate  and  built  to  the  walls. 
Support  for  fire-stopping  might  be  same  as  for  Fig.  i if 
more  convenient. 

Fig.  3.  — In  this  and  the  other  figures  of  this  plate  note 
fire-stopping  of  wooden  furring  by  two  courses  of  brick- 
work being  set  out  to  face  of  furring  above  and  below  floor 
joists  all  around  the  building.  Other  types  of  masonry 
walls  should  be  built  out  in  the  same  manner. 

Fig.  4.  — Fire-stopping  at  a floor  level  when  the  wall  is 
thinner  above  the  floor  than  below. 

Fig.  5.  — Terra  cotta  and  gypsum  block  wall  furring. 

Note.  — The  first  course  above  each  floor  shall  either 
be  solid  blocks  or  the  hollow  spaces  be  filled  with  mortar. 


main  hallway  by  substantial  fire-resistive  par- 
titions and  doors. 

Idwelling  house  fires  most  dangerous  to  life 
are  those  which  occur  in  the  cellar,  basement,  or 
first  story.  The  smoke  and  heat  ascend  through 
all  possible  channels  and  always  concentrate  in 
the  stairway  if  it  is  accessible.  When  such  a 
fire  hapjiens  at  night  and  the  occupants  are 
asleep,  the  danger  of  the  stairway  being  clogged 
with  smoke  or  filled  with  flames  before  dis- 
covery is  very  great.  When  this  occurs,  if 
other  means  of  exit  from  upper  floors  is  not 
jirovided,  the  only  possible  escape  is  by  jump- 
ing from  the  windows.  Many  lives  are  lost  in 
dwelling  house  fires  annually  from  this  cause 
and  too  much  stress  cannot  be  laid  upon  the 
extremity  of  the  hazard  and  the  necessity  for 
removing  it. 

Note. — Fkxperience  has  shown  that  people  com- 
pelled to  jump  from  a third  or  higher  stor}^  of  a building 
are  almost  invariably  killed  or  dangerously  injured. 
Death  has  frequently  resulted  from  a jump  from  even 
a second  story  window',  and  serious  injury,  such  as 
broken  limbs  are  very  likely  to  be  received.  Stone  pave- 
ments and  frozen  ground  are  especially  perilous. 

This  logically  leads  to  a consideration  of  the 
second  fundamental  structural  safety  recjuire- 
ment,  which  will  be  discussed  before  methods  of 
construction  to  overcome  these  defects  are 
described. 

Necessity  For  Secondary  Exist 

It  must  be  recognized  that  the  protection 
herein  indicated  for  main  stairways  could  not 
be  efificient  under  all  circumstances  and  at  all 
times.  There  would  always  be  the  possibility  of 
fire  within  the  stair  hallway  itself  or  in  rooms 
not  isolated  from  it,  also  in  rooms  supposed 
to  be  properly  separated  from  the  stairway, 
but  temporaril}'  connected  with  it  through  a 
doorway  accidentally  left  open.  For  these 
reasons  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  at  least 
one  additional  means  of  safe  exit  be  provided 
from  the  upper  stories  of  every  dwelling.  In 
very  large  houses  more  than  one  may  be  neces- 
sary. 

The  character  of  such  exits  is  immaterial, 
provided  they  will  afford  safe  egress  in  an 
emergency.  For  most  dwellings  the  logical  and 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


215 


natural  solution  of  the  problem  is  the  intro- 
duction of  an  additional  stairway.  Such  a 
stairway  is  a great  convenience  in  every  house, 
and  is  especially  desirable  where  servants  are 
employed.  Many  houses  have  such  back  stair- 
ways, but  when  arranged  as  they  freciuently 
are,  to  connect  on  an  upper  landing  with  the 
entrance  stairway  and  therefore  are  contained  in 
the  same  hallway  space,  they  have  no  value  as 
emergency  exits.  A hre  that  rendered  the  en- 
trance stairway  useless  would  inc^olve  the  rear 
stairway  at  the  same  time,  and  vice  versa. 
Furthermore,  rear  stairways  as  ordinarily  con- 
structed and  connected  with  the  kitchen  or 
other  rear  rooms,  where  fire  is  liable  to  occur, 
constitute  a distinct  menace  in  that  they 
afford  a direct  passageway  for  smoke  and  fire 
to  all  upper  floors  and  the  front  stairway. 

The  remedy  for  these  defects  is  to  place  the 
rear  stairway  in  a separate  fire-resistive  en- 
closure, with  doorway  connection  to  the  front 
stairway  or  hallway  in  each  story  above  the 
first,  and  connect  as  many  of  the  upper  story 
rooms  as  possible  with  the  rear  stairway  so 
that  entrance  to  it  could  be  gained  without 
passing  through  the  front  stair  hallway.  This 
is  the  simplest  and  most  desirable  method 
of  securing  safe  emergency  exit,  as  it  fur- 
nishes egress  for  the  occupants  of  the  upper 
story  rooms  by  either  stairway.  It  is  im- 
portant that  such  secondary  stairway  be  pro- 
vided with  a door  at  the  bottom. 

Every  dwelling  over  one  story  high,  either 
new  or  old,  and  irrespective  of  size,  should  be 
provided  with  some  second  means  of  exit 
from  the  upper  stories.  It  is  particularly  im- 
portant where  attic  rooms  are  occupied.  This 
is  a matter  for  serious  consideration.  Think  it 
over  and  adopt  some  plan  to  accomplish  it. 

In  connection  with  the  subject  of  safe  egress 
from  a dwelling  it  is  proper  to  call  attention  to 
the  “horizontal  exit”  as  a means  of  escape  from 
fire.  Another  form  of  such  exit  may  be  used 
where  dwellings  are  built  in  a row.  Windows  of 
upper  stories  of  adjoining  houses  can  be  con- 
nected by  a balcony  which  affords  an  excellent 
emergency  exit  around  the  party  wall,  but  the 
obvious  objections  to  such  connection  between 


houses  occupied  by  different  families  would  in 
most  cases  prevent  its  use. 

Horizontal  Cut-off  For  Cellars 

As  the  heating  ecjuipment  of  most  dwellings 
is  located  in  the  cellar  or  basement,  where  sub- 
ject only  to  occasional  supervision;  and  as  that 
space  is  also  usually  a storeroom  for  fuel  and 
all  sorts  of  combustible  material,  the  chances 
of  a fire  are  evident.  There  is  also  the  additional 
hazard  of  defective  lighting  appliances  in  such 
location,  either  from  improperly  protected 
fixtures  or  in  the  use  of  lamps,  candles  or 
matches.  Be  the  cause  what  it  may,  whether 
an  overheated  furnace  which  being  “out  of 
sight”  is  “out  of  mind;”  or  carelessness  in 
handling  lights  or  matches;  or  possibly  sponta- 
neous combustion  in  rubbish;  the  fact  remains 
that  records  show  an  excessive  number  of  cellar 
fires.  As  such  fires  frecjuently  attain  consider- 
able headway  before  discovery,  they  are  liable 
to  involve  the  whole  house  by  working  upward 
through  all  open  connections,  and  the  many 
small  hidden  channels  due  to  ignorant  design 
or  defective  workmanship,  whose  existence  was 
unknown  to  the  occupants.  The  remedy  is  to 
confine  such  fires  at  the  place  of  origin  by  a 
cut-off  between  the  cellar  and  the  story  above 
by  making  the  separating  floor  as  fire-resistive 
as  possible  consistent  with  the  type  of  con- 
struction, and  to  properly  protect  all  openings 
through  same. 

In  dwellings  where  it  may  be  impossible  to 
secure  the  high  degree  of  protection  afforded 
by  a fireproof  floor  for  a cellar  cut-off  — also 
in  frame  dwellings  of  a grade  which  would  not 
warrant  the  expense  of  such  a floor  — it  is  still 
very  essential  that  efficient  temporary  pro- 
tection be  provided,  and  that  every  precaution 
be  taken  to  prevent  a cellar  fire  spreading  to 
floors  above,  at  least  long  enough  to  afford 
reasonable  time  to  subdue  it.  This  can  be 
accomplished  by  j^rotecting  all  communicating 
openings  and  by  covering  the  ceiling  with  tire- 
resistive  material. 

Window  Protection 

When  two  |)ortions  of  a dwelling  are  i)laced 
at  right  angles  to  each  other,  the  windows  in  the 


216 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


angle  should  be  kept  as  far  apart  as  possible  to 
avoid  a tire  juraiiing  througli  them  from  one 
wing  to  the  other. 

Where  it  is  necessary  to  have  such  angle 
windows  near  each  other,  or  where  windows 
face  near-by  combustible  buildings,  it  is  desirable 
that  they  have  metal  frames  and  sash  and  be 
glazed  with  fire-resisting  glass,  or  the  windows 
should  be  protected  by  fire-shutters. 

Note. — Such  construction  might  not  be  practical 
for  cheap  dwellings,  but  the  extra  cost  would  be  C}uite 
justified  in  expensive  dwellings. 

Chimneys,  Flues,  Smokepipes  and 
Fireplaces 

DEFECTIVE  CHIMNEYS 

I.  The  worst  single  cause  of  fires  in  every 
State  in  the  Union  is  the  defective  chimney, 
including  flues  and  stovepipe  connections. 
Proper  chimney  construction  is  therefore  the 
one  most  important  structural  feature  in 
reducing  the  chances  of  fire. 


-? 


Tl.cte  XIII. 

Figs.  I and  3.  — Elevation  and  plan  showing  fire-stop- 
ping of  wall  of  frame  building  at  line  of  sill  and  between 
studs  and  floor  joists. 

Fig.  2.  — Fire-stopping  with  timber  cut  between  floor 
joists  on  top  of  brick  partition. 

Fig.  4.  — Fire-stopping  of  partition  resting  on  wooden 
girder. 

Fig.  5.  — Same  as  Fig.  2 except  that  incombustible 
compressible  material  between  two  boards  is  used  instead 
of  a timber. 


The  reasons  why  chimneys  are  such  a fruit- 
ful source  of  fires  are  numerous;  the  following 
are  the  principal  ones: 

(a)  Use  of  terra  cotta  sewer  pipe,  or  other 
unprotected  tile  or  hollow  blocks,  for  a 
chimney. 

(b)  Construction  of  chimneys  with  brick 
laid  on  edge. 

(c)  Chimney  walls  built  with  brick  flatwise, 
but  only  one  brick  thick  and  flues  unlined. 

(d)  Supporting  chimney  on  the  timber  con- 
struction of  a building,  or  brackets;  or  insuffl- 
cient  masonry  foundation  when  the  chimney 
rests  on  the  ground. 

(e)  Two  or  more  connections  to  a single  flue. 

(f)  Building  woodwork  into  the  wall  of 
chimney,  or  placing  it  in  contact  with  the 
exterior  surface. 

(g)  Smokepipes  arranged  to  enter  chimney 
in  vertical  run. 

(h)  Carelessness  in  sealing  connection  be- 
tween smokepipe  and  chimney,  and  failure  to 
anchor  pipe  to  chimney. 

(i)  Carelessness  in  not  renewing  smokepipe 
which  has  rusted  out  where  it  connects  with 
chimne}',  also  in  allowing  combustible  material 
too  near  the  pipe. 

(j)  Carelessness  in  not  keeping  chimney 
clean  and  joints  in  brickwork  properly 
pointed. 

A considerable  part  of  the  chimney  hazard 
is  due  to  carelessness,  and  the  balance  to  bad 
construction;  nevertheless,  if  chimneys  are 
properly  built,  nearly  the  whole  hazard  would 
disappear.  Therefore  the  importance  of  proper 
construction  and  maintenance  of  chimneys 
cannot  be  emphasized  too  strongly. 

(Plate  IV  shows  Standard  Recommended 
Chimney  Construction.) 

Construction  of  Chimneys 
and  Flues 

The  use  of  sewer  tile  or  other  clay  or  concrete 
tubes  for  a chimney  is  dangerous  in  the  extreme. 
They  are  very  liable  to  crack  due  to  unequal 
expansion,  thus  permitting  the  escape  of  sparks 
and  hot  gases,  which  will  ignite  woodwork  or 
other  combustible  material  near  them. 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


217 


Building  chimneys  with  brick  on  edge  is  a 
practice  all  too  common  in  some  parts  of  the 
South  and  Middle  West.  It  is  very  little  if  any 
better  than  the  unprotected  tile  chimney,  and 
is  vigorously  condemned. 

The  walls  of  dwelling  house  chimneys  used 
for  stoves,  ranges,  fireplaces,  heating  furnaces, 
or  other  heating  appliances,  and  irrespective  of 
whether  the  fuel  be  wood,  coal  or  gas,  shall 
never  be  less  than  4 inches  thick,  and  lined  with 
hard  burned  terra  cotta  or  fire  clay  flue  lining. 

Note.  The  lining  of  chimney  flues  is  very  impor- 
tant, for  it  prevents  the  disintegration  of  mortar  and 
bricks  due  to  flue  gases  and  temperature  expansion. 
The  omission  of  lining  is  a serious  defect  in  old 
chimneys  and  the  cause  of  numberless  fires. 

Only  lining  made  for  the  purpose  and  adapted 
to  withstand  high  temperature  should  be  used. 
Such  lining  is  not  subject  to  disintegration  by 
ordinary  flue  gases.  Other  varieties  are  liable 
to  crack  and  have  pieces  fall  into  the  chimney, 
thus  opening  the  possibility  of  exposing  de- 
fective mortar  joints  in  the  brickwork  with  con- 
sequent danger. 

Note.  In  regions  where  natural  gas  is  used  for  fuel, 
it  is  claimed  that  ordinary  terra  cotta  flue  lining  will 
disintegrate  by  the  action  of  the  flue  gases  and  crumble 
in  the  chimney.  Where  such  conditions  exist,  care 
should  be  taken  to  use  a fire  clay  flue  lining  which  ex- 
perience has  shown  will  withstand  the  gases ; or  line  the 
chimney  with  fire  brick. 

Flue  linings  shall  be  i inch  thick,  shall  not 
have  collars,  shall  be  set  in  cement  mortar  with 
the  joints  struck  smooth  on  the  inside.  The 
linings  shall  be  built  in  as  the  chimney  is  con- 
structed, and  all  spaces  between  brickwork  and 
lining  filled  with  mortar. 

Note.  Rectangular  linings  fill  the  flue  space  better 
and  make  it  easy  to  fill  voids  with  mortar,  thus  pro- 
ducing a strong  chimney;  but  a round  flue  is  somewhat 
easier  to  clean,  and  it  is  said  to  give  a better  draft.  The 
square  form  is  commonly  used. 

The  flue  lining  shall  start  from  the  bottom  of 
the  flue,  or  from  the  throat  of  a fireplace,  if  the 
flue  starts  from  a fireplace,  and  shall  be  carried 
up  continuously  the  entire  height  of  the  flue. 
If  the  thickness  of  the  masonry  surrounding  the 
throat  be  less  than  8 inches  in  any  part,  the  lin- 
ing shall  start  at  bottom  of  the  lintel. 


Note.  Masons  are  often  careless  about  lining  the 
flue  even  where  the  specifications  call  for  it,  and  are  apt 
to  omit  it  until  they  get  to  the  straight  part  of  the  flue. 
This  makes  the  flue  dangerous  at  its  hottest  point. 
Watch  chimney  construction  carefully,  and  see  that  de- 
tails recommended  are  not  ignored  by  the  mason. 

Not  more  than  two  flues  shall  be  permitted  in 
the  same  chimney  space,  and  the  joints  of  the 
two  sets  of  flue  linings  shall  be  offset  at  least  6 
inches.  When  there  are  more  than  two  flues  in 
a chimney,  each  third  flue  must  be  separated 
from  the  others  by  a withe  or  division  wall  at 
least  4 inches  thick  and  bonded  into  the  side 
walls.  This  is  necessary  to  insure  stability  of  the 
chimney.  It  also  prevents  possibility  of  a fire  in 
one  flue  involving  the  others.  See  Plate  IV  for 
details  of  proper  chimney  construction. 

If  chimneys  are  not  lined,  it  is  imperative 
that  they  be  8 inches  thick,  and  all  chimneys 
which  serve  as  flues  for  large  boilers  or  other 
large  furnaces  where  very  hot  fires  are  main- 
tained should  have  walls  8 inches  thick  and 
lined.  Such  chimneys  are  also  recommended  in 
localities  subject  to  severe  winters  and  where 
continuous  hot  fires  are  a necessity. 

The  walls  of  stone  chimneys  should  be  at 
least  4 inches  thicker  than  required  for  a cor- 
responding brick  or  reinforced  concrete  chimney . 

Note.  When  concrete  is  used  for  a chimney  it  should 
be  reinforced  in  both  directions,  otherwise  it  is  liable  to 
crack  during  setting  of  the  cement,  or  due  to  tempera- 
ture stresses,  or  unequal  settlement  of  foundation. 

Concrete  blocks  should  not  be  used  for  chim- 
ney construction  unless  they  contain  substan- 
tial steel  reinforcement  running  continuously 
around  the  blocks  with  the  shell  of  the  blocks 
not  less  than  4 inches  thick,  and  the  blocks  con- 
tinuously lined  with  best  quality  flue  lining  the 
same  as  a brick  chimney. 

Note.  The  use  of  concrete  blocks  in  chimney  con- 
struction is  not  recommended.  While  it  is  recognized 
that  blocks  suitable  for  this  purpose  are  made  by  some 
manufacturers,  it  is  also  an  unfortunate  fact  that  the 
majority  of  this  product  used  in  construction  of  chim- 
neys is  quite  unsuited  to  the  purpose.  Such  blocks  are 
carelessly  made;  often  have  defective  mixture;  fre- 
quently the  materials  are  poor;  and  usually  the  curing 
is  improperly  done. 

Aside  from  these  defects  of  manufacture,  the  blocks 
are  generally  less  than  the  minimum  4-inch  thickness. 
In  view  of  these  well-known  facts,  extreme  care  should 


218 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


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Plate  IV. 


Plate  — Details  of  chimney 
construction  showing  method  of 
flashing  at  roof  surface. 


Plaster 

Asbestos  Board 


Incamhustible 

Filling 


j£CTior~t 


Sheet  Metal  Strip  . 

tor  holdiuj  fireproofin^''^^^  ^ 
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Plate  \'1IL  — Detail  showing  sup- 
port for  fire  stopping  around  chim- 
ney, and  protection  for  woodwork 
placed  next  to  plaster  on  chimne}- 
brickwork. 

Plate  IV.  — Elevation  and  section 
of  an  interior  independent  chimney 
showing  recommended  construction. 
Extra  flues  can  be  added  as  desired. 


219 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


be  exercised  in  the  selection  and  use  of  concrete  blocks 
for  chimney  building.  Owing  to  the  large  size  of  each 
block,  especially  if  there  be  more  than  one  flue  in  a 
chimney,  the  danger  of  cracking  due  to  uneven  settle- 
ment of  foundation  is  increased  even  though  the  blocks 
be  of  good  quality.  This  justifies  the  requirement  for 
reinforcement. 

The  joints  on  the  inside  of  all  chimneys  and 
flues  shall  be  struck  smooth.  No  purging  mor- 
tar or  plaster  should  be  permitted. 

Note.  The  plastering  is  liable  to  fall  under  the  in- 
flence  of  heat  and  weather,  and  not  only  choke  the 
flue,  but  tear  out  the  mortar  between  the  joints  of  the 
bricks.  Flue  lining  will  prove  the  cheapest  in  the  end, 
for  it  will  maintain  a smooth  flue  which  is  easy  to  clean 
and  will  discourage  nest-building  by  chimney  swallows. 

It  is  recommended  that  a minimum  flue  area 
of  64  square  inches  be  furnished  where  the  fuel 
used  is  wood  or  coal.  In  some  cases  where  a 
single  medium  sized  coal  stove  is  connected  to 
a flue,  an  area  of  56  square  inches  may  be  per- 
missible. This  can  be  secured  by  use  of  a 
7^-inch  flue  lining  which  is  one  of  the  stand- 
ard sizes. 

Furnace  and  fireplace  flues  should  be  not  less 
than  96  square  inches  in  area,  and  for  the  lat- 
ter 144  square  inches  would  be  a better  mini- 
mum; greater  areas  are  often  necessary. 

Note.  A generous  sized  chimney  produces  a better 
draft;  a poor  draft  is  a great  annoyance  and  is  difficult 
to  remedy  after  a chimney  is  built. 

The  walls  of  brick  buildings  when  not  less 
than  12  inches  in  thickness  may  form  part  of 
chimney  or  flue.  In  no  case  shall  a chimney  or 
flue  be  corbeled  out  more  than  6 inches  from  the 
wall,  and  in  all  cases  the  corbeling  shall  consist 
of  at  least  five  courses  of  brick.  Flues  in  party 
walls  shall  not  extend  beyond  the  center  of  the 
walls,  and  their  location  should  be  permanently 
indicated  on  both  sides  of  the  walls. 

Build  all  chimneys  from  the  ground  up.  None 
of  their  weight  should  be  carried  by  anything 
except  their  proper  foundations.  Foundations 
should  be  at  least  12  inches  wider  all  around 
than  the  area  of  the  chimney.  The  foundation 
for  an  exterior  chimney  should  be  started  well 
below  the  frost  line. 

A chimney  shall  never  rest  upon  or  be  car- 
ried by  wooden  floors,  beams,  or  brackets,  or 
hung  from  wooden  rafters. 


fireplaces  back-to-back  in  a brick  party  wall  to  secure 
proper  spacing  between  ends  of  floor  joists.  The  space 
between  backs  can  be  filled  if  desired. 

Figure  2 shows  floor  framing  around  a single  fireplace. 
Note  filling  between  framing  and  brickwork,  which  serves 
both  as  insulator  and  fire  stop. 

Note.  Wooden  construction  is  certain  to  shrink, 
and  beams  carrying  heavy  loads  always  deflect  in  time 
even  though  they  may  support  the  load  without  sign 
of  distress  when  first  applied.  Settlement  is  sure  to  oc- 
cur, and  such  movement  not  only  injures  the  walls  and 
ceilings  of  the  house,  but  is  very  liable  to  crack  the 
chimney  and  render  it  dangerous.  Such  chimneys  are 
always  several  feet  in  height  above  the  roof,  thus  offer- 
ing considerable  surface  exposure,  and  owing  to  their 
unstable  support  they  will  sway  in  a heavy  wind.  This 
also  tends  to  produce  open  joints  at  the  roof  line,  which 
is  a most  hazardous  place  for  sparks  to  issue  as  they 
come  directly  in  contact  with  the  woodwork. 

Do  not  support  chimneys  on  iron  brackets 
or  stirrups  attached  to  wooden  construction, 
however  carefully  devised.  This  practice  is  not 
uncommon,  but  is  hazardous.  Furthermore,  a 
small  fire  around  the  base,  from  any  cause,  may 
drop  the  chimney  and  form  a draft  for  ra])id 
spread  of  fire. 

Note.  It  is  well  known  that  steel  begins  to  lose  its 
strength  at  about  500  degrees  Fahr.,  and  at  1,000  de- 
grees Fahr.  approximately  50  to  70  per  cent,  of  its 
strength  is  gone.  Such  temperatures  are  produced  in  an 
ordinary  fire,  and  if  maintained  even  for  a short  time 


220 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


are  almost  sure  to  produce  collapse  of  exposed  steel 
structural  members. 

\\1ien  a chimney  is  to  be  cut  off  below,  in 
whole  or  in  part,  it  should  be  wholly  supported 
by  brick  or  stone  work,  or  steel  construction, 
properly  erected  from  the  ground  ui). 

Piers  which  suj)i)ort  chimneys  shall  start  from 
the  foundation  on  the  same  line  with  the  chim- 
ney breast.  'Fhey  shall  be  not  less  than  12 
inches  on  the  face  and  shall  be  j)roi)erly 
bonded  into  the  walls. 

Build  all  chimneys  to  a ])oint  at  least  3 feet 
above  flat  roofs,  and  2 feet  above  the  ridge  of 
peak  roofs,  and  ])ro\  ide  a ])roj)er  cai)])ing  of 
stone,  terra  cotta,  concrete  or  cast  iron. 

Note.  Unless  brick  chimneys  be  capped  or  the  top 
bricks  tied  together  in  some  secure  manner,  the  mortar 
joints  will  loosen  by  the  action  of  heat  and  weather,  and 
in  time  will  fall  out.  This  will  loosen  the  brick  and  form 
holes  between  them,  thus  making  a place  for  soot  to  ac- 
cumulate and  render  the  chimney  unsafe.  Chimneys 
with  jdain  tO{)s  will  last  longer  and  are  safer  than  those 
with  courses  of  brick  corl)eled  out  near  the  top  for  or- 
namental effect.  The  lack  of  good  bond  allows  such 
brick  to  get  loose  and  in  time  they  are  liable  to  drop. 

Under  no  circumstances  shall  the  brickwork 
of  the  chimney  be  extended  out  over  the  roof  by 
the  projection  of  the  course  of  brick  nearest  to 
it. 

Note.  Such  overhanging  projection  or  shoulder  will 
inevitably  cause  cracks  in  the  chimney  in  case  the  chim- 
ney settles;  the  roof  in  such  event  lifting  the  upper  por- 
tion of  the  chimney  by  means  of  the  overhang  or  should- 
er and  causing  a crack  at  the  most  dangerous  of  all 
places. 

Connections  between  chimney  and  roof  shall 
be  made  with  sheet  metal  flashing,  arranged  to 
overlajt  and  allow  for  mox'ement  that  may  oc- 
cur between  chimney  and  roof.  See  Plate 

Note.  Copper  is  the  best  metal  to  use.  It  costs  but 
little  more  than  tin  or  sheet  iron,  and  will  be  permanent, 
whereas  the  latter  will  rust  out  and  it  is  difficult  to  re- 
place a flashing  after  it  has  failed.  Zinc  resists  corro- 
sion well,  but  melts  easily,  so  in  case  of  tire  it  would 
quickly  disappear  lea^•ing  a draft  opening  around  the 
chimney,  thus  contributing  to  the  spread  of  the  fire. 
For  the  same  reason  lead  should  never  be  used. 

Flues  should  be  made  as  nearly  vertical  as 
possible  to  secure  the  best  draft,  and  there 
should  be  but  one  connection  to  a flue. 

Note.  Fires  are  constantly  occurring  from  having 
more  than  one  connection  to  the  same  flue,  the  sparks 
passing  from  one  opening  through  another. 


Portland  cement  mortar  only  should  be  used 
in  the  construction  of  chimneys  and  flues. 

Note.  Portland  cement  mortar  is  very  superior  to 
lime  mortar  in  resisting  the  action  of  heat  and  flue  gases. 
The  latter  disintegrates  in  time,  and  is  liable  to  fall  out 
of  the  joints,  thus  producing  a hole  through  which  a 
fire  is  likely  to  originate.  Some  building  laws  specify 
that  cement  mortar  need  only  be  used  for  the  foundation 
of  a chimney  and  the  portion  exposed  to  the  weather 
above  the  roof.  This  is  unwise ; for  reasons  stated  above, 
the  whole  inside  of  a chimney  exposed  to  heat,  should 
also  be  built  with  cement  mortar.  Cement  is  much 
cheaper  today  than  when  such  specifications  were  orig- 
inally written,  and  considering  the  small  amount  of 
mortar  necessary  to  build  a chimney,  the  difference  in 
cost  between  cement  and  lime  is  of  small  account  com- 
pared with  the  superiority  of  the  former. 

Woodwork  Around  Chimney 

No  tvooden  beams  or  joists  shall  be  placed 
within  2 inches  of  the  outside  face  of  a chimney 
or  flue,  whether  the  same  be  for  smoke,  air  or 
any  other  purpose.  No  woodwork  shall  be 
within  4 inches  of  the  back  face  of  the  wall  of 
any  fireplace. 

All  s]:>aces  between  the  chimney  and  wooden 
beams  shall  be  filled  with  mineral  wool,  loose 
cinders,  gypsum  block,  or  other  porous  incom- 
bustible material. — See  Plates  Rq  Y\  and 

VII. 

Note. — The  filling  of  dead  air  spaces  around  a 
chimney  before  the  flooring  is  laid,  is  to  form  a fire- 
stop,  and  prevent  an  accumulation  of  shavings  and 
other  combustible  material  in  them;  also  to  avoid  the 
danger  of  mice  building  nests  there.  The  filling  material 
should  be  porous,  thus  preserving  the  heat  insulating 
advantage  of  the  air  cells;  consequently  brickwork, 
mortar  or  solid  concrete,  should  not  be  used. 

The  incombustible  material  shall  be  sup- 
ported by  sheet  metal  set  into  the  brickwork 
and  nailed  to  the  wooden  beams  and  have  a 
flexible  joint  between,  as  indicated  in  Plate  IV; 
or  flat  metal  nailed  to  the  woodwork  with  the 
inner  edge  close  to  the  chimney  will  serve  the 
purpose.  See  Plate  ATII. 

The  header  beam  carr}dng  the  tail  beams  of  a 
floor  and  supporting  the  trimmer  arch  in  front 
of  a fireplace,  shall  be  not  less  than  20  inches 
from  the  chimney  breast. 

Fhider  no  circumstances  shall  wooden  stud- 
ding, furring,  or  lathing  be  placed  against  any 
chimney;  the  wooden  construction  shall  either 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


221 


be  set  back  from  the  chimney  as  indicated  in 
Plate  VII,  Figs.  3 and  4,  or  the  plastering  shall 
be  directly  on  the  masonry,  or  on  metal  lathing, 
or  incombustible  furring  material  which  affords 
a surface  for  plastering. 

Note. — It  is  recommended  that  a coat  of  cement 
plaster  be  placed  directly  upon  the  masonry  of  such 
portions  of  a chimney  as  are  to  be  encased  by  a wooden 
partition  or  other  combustible  construction. 

Baseboards  or  other  woodwork  fastened  to 
plaster  which  is  against  the  masonry  of  a 
chimney  shall  have  a layer  of  asbestos  board 
at  least  yi  inch  thick  placed  between  the  wood- 
work and  the  plaster.  See  Plate  VIII. 

Note  i. — The  practice  of  inserting  wooden  joists 
in  the  wall  of  a chimney,  or  of  placing  studding,  furring, 
or  other  woodwork  in  contact  with  the  wall  is  very 
risky,  and  should  not  be  permitted  under  any  cir- 
cumstances. 

Note  2. — When  necessary  to  attach  metal  lath, 
either  with  or  without  metal  furring  strips,  to  a chimney 
wall,  it  is  recommended  that  wire  loops  be  embedded 
in  the  mortar  joints  at  intervals  as  the  chimney  is  being 
built.  The  lath  can  be  easily  and  rigidly  attached  to 
these  loops.  Nails  should  never  be  driven  into  a chim- 
ney wall  less  than  8 inches  thick;  they  are  liable  to 
break  out  the  mortar  on  the  inside  and  render  the 
chimney  defective. 

Smokepipes 

Next  in  importance  to  correct  construction 
of  a chimney,  is  proper  installation  and  main- 
tenance of  smokepipes.  Thousands  of  hres 
occur  annually  from  defective  smokepipes  — 
usually  the  direct  results  of  carelessness  or 
neglect. 

Smokepipes  should  always  enter  the  chimney 
horizontally,  and  the  connection  through  the 
chimney  wall  to  the  flue  should  be  made  with 
round  tile  or  metal  thimbles  securely  set  in  the 
chimney  with  cement  mortar. 

Flue  holes  when  not  in  use  shall  be  closed 
with  tight  fitting  metal  covers.  Pasting  paper 
over  them  is  a very  pernicious  practice. 

No  smokepipe  should  be  within  9 inches  of 
any  woodwork,  or  any  wooden  lath  and  plaster 
partition  or  ceiling. 

Smokepipes  for  large  cooking  ranges,  hot  air 
furnaces,  low  pressure  steam  or  hot  water  boilers 
shall  be  not  less  than  18  inches  below  any  wood 
lath  and  plaster  or  other  combustible  ceiling. 


unless  at  least  the  upper  half  of  such  smokepipe 
is  properly  protected  by  i inch  or  more  of 
asbestos  covering  or  its  equivalent,  or  by  a metal 
casing  spaced  2 inches  from  the  upper  half  of 
the  pipe.  If  so  protected  such  smokepipes  shall 
be  not  less  than  9 inches  from  any  wood  lath 
and  plaster  construction,  or  12  inches  from 
unprotected  woodwork  or  other  combustible 
material. 

Where  a smokepipe  passes  through  a wooden 
lath  and  plaster  partition,  a section  of  the  par- 
tition shall  be  removed  and  the  pi])e  shall  be 
protected  from  the  woodwork  of  the  partition 
by  a galvanized  iron,  double  walled,  ventilated 
thimble  having  a diameter  not  less  than  12 
inches  larger  than  pipe;  or  by  at  least  4 inches 
of  brick  work  or  other  incombustible  material. 

Smokepipes  should  not  be  permitted  to  pass 
through  floors,  nor  through  closets  or  other 
concealed  spaces. 

A smokepipe  shall  never  pass  through  a roof 
having  wooden  framework  or  covering. 

A smokepipe  shall  never  enter  a chimney  in 
the  attic  or  garret. 

Every  smokepipe  should  be  thoroughly 
cleaned  at  least  once  each  year,  and  if  in  prac- 
tically continuous  service,  they  should  be 
cleaned  twice  a year. 

Smokepipes  should  be  securely  anchored  in 
position  by  tightly  drawn  wires.  This  is  very 
important. 

Fireplaces 

The  walls  of  fireplaces  should  never  be  less 
than  8 inches  thick,  and  if  built  of  stone  the 
minimum  thickness  should  be  12  inches. 

It  is  advisable  that  the  backs  of  all  fireplaces 
be  lined  with  fire  brick  or  cast  iron.  When  a 
grate  for  burning  coal  or  coke  is  set  in  a fire- 
place, it  is  imperative  that  a lining  of  fire  brick 
at  least  2 inches  in  thickness  shall  be  added  to 
the  fireback;  or  soapstone,  tile  or  cast  iron  may 
be  used,  if  solidly  backed  with  brick  or  concrete. 
Furnace  and  fireplace  flues  should  not  be  less 
than  96  scjuare  inches  in  area,  and  for  the  latter 
144  square  inches  would  be  a better  minimum. 

All  fireplaces  and  chimney  breasts  where 
mantels  are  placed,  shall  have  trimmer  arches 


222 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


or  other  ap])roved  fireproof  construction  sup- 
l)orting  hearths,  llie  arches  and  hearths  shall 
be  at  least  20  inches  in  width  measured  from  the 
face  of  the  chimney  breast.  The  arches  shall  be 
of  brick,  stone,  terra-cotta,  or  reinforced  con- 
crete, not  less  than  4 inches  in  thickness.  A 
flat  stone  may  be  used  to  carry  the  hearth 
instead  of  an  arch,  if  it  be  properly  supported 
and  a suitable  fill  be  provided  between  it  and 
the  hearth.  The  length  of  the  trimmer  arch 
and  of  the  hearth  shall  be  not  less  than  the 
width  of  the  chimney  breast.  The  hearth  shall 
be  of  brick,  stone,  tile,  or  concrete.  False  fire- 
places should  only  be  permitted  against  un- 
furred masonry  walls. 

Wood  centering  under  trimmer  arches  shall 
be  removed  before  plastering  the  ceiling  under- 
neath. 

No  coal  burning  heater  shall  be  placed  in  a 
fire])lace  which  does  not  conform  to  the  fore- 
going reciuirements  and  have  an  incombustible 
mantel.  No  wood  mantel  or  other  woodwork 
shall  be  placed  within  8 inches  of  the  side  nor 
within  12  inches  of  the  top  of  any  open  fire- 
place. No  combustible  summer  piece  or  fire- 
board  shall  be  used  in  connection  with  any  open 
fireplace. 

Provide  a substantial  spark  screen  for  all 
wood-burning  fireplaces.  For  construction  of 
fireplaces  and  flues,  see  Plates  1\’  and  VT 

Heating  and  Lighting  Equipment 

PROTECTION  OF  BOILERS,  FURNACES  .VND  RANGES 

Low  pressure  heating  boilers,  hot  air  fur- 
naces, laundry  stoves  and  coal  ranges,  without 
legs,  and  similar  appliances,  where  hot  fires 
are  used,  shall  rest  upon  incombustible  founda- 
tions wherever  possible.  When  necessary  to 
be  placed  upon  wooden  floors,  the  floors  shall 
be  protected  by  sheet  metal  or  a inch  layer 
of  asbestos  board  or  building  lumber,  covered 
with  not  less  than  4 inches  of  masonry  set  in 
cement  mortar. 

Any  woodwork  or  wooden  lath  and  plaster 
partition  within  4 feet  of  the  sides  or  back,  or 
6 feet  from  the  front  of  any  such  boiler,  furnace, 
or  heating  appliance,  shall  be  covered  with  metal 


shields  or  other  approved  incombustible  ma- 
terial to  a height  of  at  least  4 feet  above  the 
floor.  This  covering  shall  extend  the  full  length 
of  the  boiler,  furnace,  or  heating  appliance,  and 
to  at  least  5 feet  in  front  of  it.  Metal  shields 
shall  be  so  attached  as  to  preserve  an  air  space 
behind  them.  Combustible  construction  when 
properly  protected,  shall  be  not  nearer  than  2 
feet  to  the  sides  or  back  of  the  heating  appli- 
ance, or  5 feet  to  the  front  of  same. 

Heating  boilers  shall  be  encased  on  sides  and 
top  by  incombustible  protective  covering  not 
less  than  i inch  thick,  and  at  least  the  tops  of 
all  hot  air  furnaces  shall  be  covered  in  the  same 
manner.  The  overhead  clearance  of  such  cov- 
ered boilers  and  hot  air  furnaces  shall  be  not  less 
than  15  inches.  Any  woodwork  within  2 feet  of 
the  top  of  such  boiler  or  furnace  shall  at  least 
be  protected  by  a loose  fitting  metal  shield 
arranged  to  preserve  an  air  space  between  the 
metal  and  the  wood. 

Fire-Stopping 

THE  NECESSITY  FOR  FIRE-STOPPING,  AND  SUIT- 
ABLE MATERIALS  TO  USE 

No  one  feature  of  house  construction  will  con- 
tribute more  to  its  safety  in  case  of  fire  than 
efficient  well  placed  fire-stops.  Their  purpose 
is  to  delay  the  spread  of  fire  and  so  assist  in 
confining  it  to  the  story  in  which  it  starts. 
This  protects  life,  and  affords  a better  chance  of 
extinguishing  the  fire. 

Fire-stops  are  principally  applicable  to  non- 
fireproof  buildings,  though  they  should  be  used 
in  any  t>'pe  of  building  where  openings  exist 
which  would  act  as  flues  to  distribute  heated 
air  or  gases  from  a fire  in  one  part  of  a building 
to  other  portions  where  they  might  ignite  com- 
bustible material.  The  added  cost  of  such  pro- 
tection is  very  slight,  and  yet  its  value  is  so 
little  appreciated,  the  ordinary  dwelling  either 
has  no  fire-stopping  at  all,  or  else  the  work  is 
so  indifferently  done  as  to  be  practically  worth- 
less. Because  such  work  does  not  show  when  a 
building  is  completed,  and  because  its  impor- 
tance is  usually  entirely  underestimated,  it  is 
common  to  delegate  it  to  a boy,  or  some  careless 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


223 


incompetent  person.  The  result  is  that  the 
fire-stop  is  so  in  name  only;  it  being  merely  a 
delusive  imitation  which  if  called  upon  to 
fulfill  its  purpose,  fails  completely.  Such  work 
does  not  call  for  any  high  degree  of  mechanical 


Fig.  r.  — Method  of  lire-stopping  around  floor  register. 
Note  register  box  extended  to  line  of  ceiling  projection 
which  simplifies  installation. 

Fig.  2.  — A more  complete  method  of  fire-stopping,  and 
one  well  suited  for  existing  buildings. 

Fig.  3.  — Isometric  sketch  showing  method  of  fire-stop- 
ping between  floor  joists  around  a hot  air  pipe  carried  up 
in  a partition. 

skill,  but  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  it  be 
done  by  an  intelligent  conscientious  workman 
if  it  is  to  be  efficient. 

The  danger  resulting  from  careless  workman- 
ship is  greater  in  the  construction  of  wooden 
fire-stops  than  when  incombustible  material  is 
used.  The  reason  for  this  is,  that  as  the  spaces 
between  studs  and  joists  vary  somewhat,  and 
as  odd  ends  of  timber  are  used  for  the  purpose, 
it  often  happens  that  the  opening  supposed  to 
be  filled  is  really  not  completely  closed.  There 
will  be  a space  oi  to  inch  due  to  a stop- 
piece  happening  to  be  that  much  short  of  the 


correct  length,  but  which  is  considered  “good 
enough”  for  the  purpose.  Another  cause  for 
openings  at  the  ends,  is  that  if  the  end  of  a 
stop-piece  is  not  square,  a careless  person  will 
consider  it  too  much  trouble  to  saw  it  to  fit;  or 
a stud  or  joist  may  be  warped,  or  not  set  square- 
ly, and  unless  the  stop-piece  is  carefully  fitted 
an  opening  will  be  left.  The  same  defects  exist 
at  the  sides  of  the  stop-pieces,  and  as  all  such 
joints  are  sure  to  widen  somewhat  due  to 
shrinkage,  it  is  extremely  important  that  such 
fire-stopping  be  snugly  fitted.  If  wooden  fire- 
stopping be  used  for  walls  or  partitions,  an 
intermediate  stop  shall  be  placed  between  the 
studs  midway  between  floor  and  ceiling. 

Incombustible  fire-stopping  material,  such 
as  mineral  wool,  concrete,  or  mortar,  is  soft 
when  used,  and  is  more  or  less  tamped  or 
pressed  into  the  space  prepared  for  it.  This 
usually  forms  tight  joints  on  all  sides,  even 
though  the  work  be  indifferently  done.  Mate- 
rial similar  to  mineral  wool  which  is  packed  in 
place  and  does  not  harden  will  have  a tendency 
to  expand  and  fill  any  space  that  may  later  be 
formed  by  the  shrinkage  of  the  timber,  which 
is  an  advantage.  The  necessity  for  having 
tight  joints  is  to  prevent  the  passage  of  air  or 
gases  which  have  been  heated  to  the  point  of 
combustion. 

Construction  of  Fire-Stopping 

Fire-stopping  shall  be  arranged  to  cut  off  all 
concealed  draft  openings,  and  form  an  effectual 
horizontal  fire  barrier  between  stories.  Open 
passages  in  frame  walls  or  partitions  are  a pro- 
lific cause  for  rapid  spread  of  fire  to  all  parts  of 
a structure.  If  fire  occurs  in  the  cellar  or  base- 
ment, they  act  as  flues  to  carry  it  to  the  attic. 
If  the  fire  starts  in  the  attic  the  sparks  fall 
down  the  hollow  spaces.  Results  are  disastrous 
in  either  case. 

Furred  Walls. — For  all  walls  furred  with 
wood  the  masonry  between  the  ends  of  wooden 
beams  shall  project  the  thickness  of  the  furring 
beyond  the  inner  face  of  the  wall  for  the  full 
depth  of  the  beams;  or  a double  course  of  bricks 
or  other  masonry  above  and  below  the  beams 
shall  project  beyond  the  face  of  the  wall  the 


224 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


full  thickness  of  the  furring.  Plate  XII.  Such 
hre-sto])ping  in  hollow  block  walls  is  usually 
obtained  by  using  i-inch  slabs  of  the  same 
material,  the  slabs  serving  also  as  the  bearing 
course  for  the  floor  joists.  Where  floor  beams 
are  ])arallel  to  a wall  furred  with  wood,  there 
shall  be  a s])ace  of  not  less  than  2]/2  inches 
between  such  wall  and  the  nearest  beam.  This 
S])ace  shall  be  tilled  in  solidly  with  brickwork 
or  concrete  for  the  full  de])th  of  the  floor  beams, 
or  be  e(iui\  alently  flre-sto])ped. 

Notk.  — I’wo  courses  of  bricks,  slabs,  or  other  ma- 
sonary, are  recpiired  to  cut  off  a furring  space,  for 
mortar  joints  may  drop  out  of  a single  course  and 
render  it  useless. 

Incombustible  furring  is  e.xcellent  since  it 
entirely  ])revents  a lire  cree])ing  along  a wall 
from  one  story  to  another  behind  the  ])laster. 
'kerra-cotta  or  gypsum  furring  blocks  or  tile 
are  much  used  and  are  quite  satisfactory.  4'hey 
have  a series  of  groo\'es  in  the  back  face  which 
affords  the  necessary  air  s]:>ace  between  the  wall 
and  the  ])laster.  Plate  XII,  Tigs.  4 and  5. 
ddiere  are  also  several  styles  of  metal  furring 
stri]^  to  which  metal  lath  is  attached,  and  so 
serve  the  same  ])uri)ose.  Where  walls  are  likely 
to  be  dam]),  terra  cotta  furring  would  prob- 
ably be  most  satisfactory.  All  these  forms  of 
furring  should  be  lire-stop])ed  with  mortar  a 
few  inches  at  the  bottom  to  prevent  ])ossibility 
of  their  acting  as  flues  for  heated  gases  and 
bringing  them  in  contact  with  wooden  con- 
struction in  the  floor  above. 

Walls  Stu(I(lcd-oJf.  - Where  walls  are  stud- 
ded-olT,  the  space  between  the  inside  face 
of  the  wall  and  the  studding  at  the  floor  level 
sliall  be  flre-sto])])ed  with  incombustible  mate- 
rial. 'khe  beams  directly  over  the  studded-ott 
s])ace  shall  be  deadened  with  not  less  than  4 
inches  of  incombustible  material,  which  shall 
be  laid  on  boards  cut  in  between  the  beams;  or 
better  still,  use  4-inch  solid  gypsum  plaster 
blocks  cut  to  fit  the  s])ace  between  the  beams 
and  sup])orted  by  cleats,  thus  avoiding  the 
board  sup])orts.  The  underside  of  such  beams 
shall  be  j)rotected  by  a covering  of  metal  lath 
or  plaster  board,  and  plastered  to  a total  thick- 
ness of  ^ inch,  or  a double  layer  of  y^-\r\eh  as- 


bestos mill  board  with  broken  joints.  Plate  XIII. 

Frame  Walls. — In  frame  buildings  which  are 
to  be  lathed  and  ])lastered  or  otherwise  sheathed 
on  the  inside,  all  stud  walls  shall  be  completely 
fire-stopped  with  brickwork  or  other  suitable 
incombustible  material  at  each  floor  level.  The 
spaces  between  the  studs  shall  be  filled  to  a 
height  of  4 inches  above  the  floor  level.  Plates 
XIII  and  XIV. 

Partitions. — Where  stud  partitions  rest  di- 
rectly over  each  other  and  cross  wooden  floor 
beams  at  any  angle  they  shall  run  down  be- 
tween the  floor  beams  and  rest  on  the  top  plate 
of  the  ])artition  below,  and  shall  have  the  spaces 
between  the  studding  filled  in  solid  to  at  least 
4 inches  above  each  floor  level  with  approved 
incombustible  materials. 

There  are  some  places  in  wooden  construction 
such  as  a fire-stop  along  the  top  of  a brick  par- 
tition o\’er  which  a floor  is  laid  in  the  story 
abo\-e,  see  Plate  XIII,  Figs.  2 and  5,  where 
wooden  fire-stopj)ing,  or  a compressible  incom- 
bustible material,  such  as  mineral  wool,  must 
be  used  otherwise  the  shrinkage  of  the  timber 
construction  will  in  time  cause  the  floor  to 
bulge.  A course  of  brickwork  resting  on  the 
foundation  wall  and  built  between  the  end  of 
the  joists  is  a method  of  fire-stopping  frequently 
recommended  as  an  addition  to  a wall  stop  such 
as  shown  in  Plate  XIII,  Figs,  i and  3.  Such 
brickwork,  if  built  snugly  against  the  underside 
of  the  floor,  as  it  should  be,  is  likely  to  deform 
the  floor  when  the  timber  shrinks.  If  the  wall 
stopping  is  effectively  done  with  incombustible 
material,  it  is  doubtful  whether  such  secondary 
stop  is  necessary. 

Roofs.--  Dwellings  within  10  feet  of  other 
non-fire])roof  buildings,  shall  have  the  walls 
behind  eaves  or  cornices  fully  fire-stopped  to 
prevent  fire  from  a near-by  building  breaking 
through  into  the  attic  space.  Such  fire-stopping 
will  also  protect  against  fire  which  might  lap 
up  under  the  eaves  through  the  windows  from  a 
fire  within. 

Cornices  and  Gutters. — Combustible  cornices 
are  always  troublesome  in  case  of  fire.  They 
catch  fire  easily,  are  usually  dry  and  so  burn 
freely  and  a fire  travels  through  them  rapidly. 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


225 


Incombustible  cornices  are  safest.  Even  though 
the  frame  work  be  of  wood,  it  is  wise  to  cover 
the  exterior  surface  with  incombustible  material 
where  practical.  Metal  lath  and  cement  plaster 
or  stucco  could  be  used  on  flat  surfaces  on 
underside  of  cornices. 

Cornices  built  of  wood  or  having  wooden 
frames  on  rows  of  buildings,  shall  be  either  fully 
fire-stopped  between  each  building,  or  shall  be 
completely  separated. 

Note. — It  is  a common  occurrence  for  a fire  in  a 
row  of  dwellings  to  communicate  to  several  buildings 
through  the  cornice;  it  is  much  safer  to  make  them 
entirely  independent  and  it  is  so  recommended. 

Piazzas. — It  is  important  that  stud  walls 
back  of  or  over  piazzas,  should  be  fully  fire- 
stopped  in  manner  indicated  in  Plate  XIX. 

Note. — Fire  chiefs  report  that  fire  from  a burning 
piazza  is  frequently  carried  through  stud  walls  to  the 
attic  or  upper  story  of  a house  and  becomes  the  cause 
of  complete  destruction  of  the  building,  which  other- 
wise might  have  been  saved. 

Sliding  Doors. — When  sliding  doors  are 
pocketed  in  partitions  such  pockets  should  be 


Ov  Vj  ^ V 

acAiH  _p_4 — j — I — p_ 

Plate  XI\’. 


Figs.  I and  3.  — idevation  and  plan  showing  firc-stop- 
ping  in  frame  wall  at  connection  of  upper  floor  joists  with 
girt. 

Figs.  2 and  4.  — Fire-stopping  at  same  place  for  “bal- 
loon frame.’’ 


completely  fire-stopped  at  sides,  top  and  bot- 
tom. Asbestos  mill  board,  or  plaster  board  is 
suited  to  this  use. 

Wainscoting. — The  surface  of  the  walls  or 
partitions  behind  wooden  wainscoting  and 
dados,  shall  be  plastered  flush  with  the  ground 
and  down  to  the  floor  line.  The  same  stopping 
shall  be  placed  behind  all  applied  wooden  trim, 
such  as  fancy  wooden  paneling. 

Stairs. — The  space  between  stair  carriages 
shall  be  fire-stopped  by  a header  beam  at  top 
and  bottom.  Where  a stair  run  is  not  all  in  one 
room,  or  where  a closet  is  located  beneath  the 
stairs,  the  stair  carriages  should  have  an  inter- 
mediate fire-stop,  so  located  as  to  cut  off  com- 
munication between  portions  of  the  stairs  in 
different  rooms,  or  between  the  closet  and  the 
room  in  which  it  is  placed.  Such  stops  can  best 
be  made  of  plank. 

If  a flight  of  stairs  is  so  arranged  as  to  be  the 
only  construction  separating  two  stories  at  the 
place  where  they  are  located,  as  for  example 
between  the  cellar  and  the  story  above,  the 
underside  of  the  stairs  should  be  covered  with 
metal  lath  or  inch  plaster  board  and  plastered 
to  a total  thickness  of  ^ inch. 

Ducts  and  Chases. — Ducts,  chases,  or  shafts 
for  pipes,  wires,  speaking  tubes,  and  for  similar 
purposes,  shall  be  fire-stopped  at  each  floor  with 
mortar  or  other  incombustible  material  so  as 
to  form  tight  joints. 

Water,  Gas  and  Plumbing  Pipes. — All  ex- 
posed pipes  ]4assing  through  any  floor  or  wall 
shall  have  the  surrounding  air  space  closed  off 
at  the  ceiling  and  the  floor  line,  or  on  each  side 
of  the  wall  by  close  fitting  metal  caps.  Wherever 
possible  they  should  be  surrounded  by  mortar 
or  other  close  fitting  incombustible  material 
which  does  not  conduct  heat  like  metal.  In 
fireproof  construction  it  is  ])referable  to  have 
the  pipes  or  shafts  fit  neat  in  the  floor  or  wall. 

Hot  Air  Pipes  and  Registers. — Where  a fur- 
nace hot  air  pipe  passes  through  a floor,  the 
S})ace  between  the  pipe  and  floor  construction 
shall  be  filled  with  incombustible  material  sup- 
])orted  by  sheet  metal  or  metal  lath.  A light 
])orous  material,  such  as  mineral  wool  is  best 
suited  to  the  ])ur]X)se.  Plate  XXI,  Fig.  3. 


226 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


The  space  between  a register  box  set  in  a 
floor  and  the  casing  protecting  the  floor  con- 
struction, shall  be  filled  with  similar  incom- 
bustible material.  This  shall  include  the  space 
around  that  portion  of  the  hot  air  pipe  attached 
to  the  register  box  down  to  the  bottom  of  the 
joists  in  wooden  floor  construction,  and  a layer 
of  sheet  metal  shall  surround  the  ])ipe  and  be 
securely  nailed  to  the  underside  of  the  joists 
to  support  the  fire-stopping.  When  a register 
box  is  fire-stopped  in  this  manner,  the  space 
between  the  box  and  the  casing  may  be  reduced 
to  2 inches;  otherwise  it  should  be  4 inches.  If 
the  ceiling  has  a i)rotected  covering  as  else- 
where recommended,  it  should  be  made  to 
cover  the  sj)ace  and  surround  the  pipe.  Plate 
XXI,  Fig.  2.  When  a space  of  4 inches  is  pro- 
vided on  all  sides  of  a floor  register  box,  and  the 
surrounding  woodwork  is  encased  in  metal,  the 
tire-stopping  may  be  omitted,  provided  the 
cellar  or  furnace  room  ceiling  be  comifletely 
protected  by  a covering  at  least  efjual  to  the 
minimum  grade,  according  to  the  following 


Fire-stopping  over  piazza  roof.  See  Section  55,  par.  10. 

Fig.  I.  — Section  through  an  outside  frame  overhang- 
ing at  second  floor  level,  with  ceiling  joists  and  rafters  of  a 
piazza  framed  into  it.  Method  of  fire-stopping  over  ceil- 
ing joists,  also  for  outside  of  frame  wall  under  porch  roof. 

Fig.  2.  — Section  through  a flush  frame  with  piazza  ceil- 
ing joists  finishing  against  it,  and  method  of  fire-stopping. 
Wall  above  should  be  protected  as  indicated  in  Fig.  i. 


specifications,  and  that  this  covering  fits  snugly 
around  the  jiipe  connection  as  indicated  in 
Plate  XXI,  Fig.  i. 

The  fire-stopping  would  be  more  positive  if 
the  space  were  filled,  and  this  is  recommended 
wherever  possible  to  obtain  it. 

The  minimum  ceiling  protection  is  a gal- 
vanized metal  lath  not  less  than  No.  24  gauge, 
covered  with  inch  asbestos  or  cement  plaster; 
or  the  joists  may  be  covered  with  strong  plaster 
board  not  less  than  F2  inch  thick  (fiber  plaster 
board  preferred),  and  coated  with  X of 
gypsum  plaster;  or  the  plaster  board  may  be 
covered  with  sheet  metal.  If  sheet  metal  cover- 
ing be  used,  the  joints  between  the  sheets  of 
plaster  board  must  be  first  filled  with  plaster 
to  form  a smooth  surface  with  no  wood  exposed. 
If  the  joist  spacing  is  such  that  the  sheet  metal 
can  be  laid  parallel  to  direction  of  joists  and 
lap  u])on  them,  it  is  advisable  to  do  so.  For 
convenience  in  nailing,  the  location  of  joists 
should  be  marked  on  the  plaster  board  as  it  is 
laid.  Heavy  nails,  not  less  than  2 inches  long 
should  be  used  to  attach  the  metal,  with  a 
spacing  not  exceeding  4 inches.  When  T is 
necessary  to  place  furring  strips  on  the  plaster 
board  to  support  the  sheet  metal,  it  would  be 
useless  to  use  nails  longer  than  would  penetrate 
the  strips,  but  care  should  be  taken  to  use  heavy 
nails  wherever  possible  to  hit  a joist.  Warping 
of  the  metal  when  attacked  by  fire,  and  charring 
of  the  wood  around  the  red  hot  nails,  will  cause 
small  nails  to  pull  out  and  allow  the  metal  to 
fall.  For  the  same  reasons  metal  lath  should  be 
attached  with  long  heavy  staples.  Metal  ceil- 
ings are  not  advised  in  cellars  or  basements, 
which  are  liable  to  be  damp  when  the  heating 
equipment  is  out  of  commission.  Corrosion 
may  make  them  worthless  in  time. 

When  a register  is  connected  to  a brick  hot 
air  shaft,  the  space  required  between  the  out- 
side of  the  shaft  and  the  wooden  floor  con- 
struction shall  be  fire-stopped  in  like  manner. 

Note. — This  fire-stopping  is  important,  but  seldom 
done.  Any  such  space  should  be  fire-stopped  irrespec- 
tive of  floor  construction.  In  fire-proof  floor  construc- 
tion, register  boxes  should  fit  the  floor  opening  snugly, 
and  so  make  fire-stopping  unnecessary.  The  protection 
of  wood  work  as  elsewhere  required  around  a register, 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


227 


will  safeguard  the  wood  from  the  heat  of  the  pipe 
itself,  but  the  open  space  provided  around  the  pipe 
and  register  box  forms  an  easy  entrance  for  fire  occur- 
ring in  the  lower  story  to  gain  access  to  the  story  which 
the  register  serves.  The  hot  air  pipe  and  its  connection 
will  get  red  hot  and  communicate  fire  to  combustibles 
surrounding  the  register  face,  such  as  parquet  floors, 
carpets,  rugs  and  furniture.  If  the  register  box  has 
soldered  joints  they  will  open,  and  a passageway  for 
flame  be  formed.  It  is  futile  to  enclose  stairways  and 
protect  ceilings  as  elsewhere  provided  unless  all  other 
openings  such  as  these  are  adequately  closed. 

The  greatest  hazard  is  in  the  cellar  or  basement 
where  the  furnace  is  located.  There  is  an  additional 
danger  from  the  hot  air  pipes  themselves.  Such  pipes 
leading  from  the  furnace  if  not  protected  would  in 
case  of  a fire  become  intensely  hot  and  burn  the  dust 
which  invariably  accumulates  in  such  devices,  thus 
making  a flash  fire,  and  there  would  be  great  danger  of 
the  fire  being  communicated  to  the  floor  above,  even 
though  the  pipes  and  registers  were  fire-stopped  at  the 
floor  openings.  For  this  reason  the  pipes,  and  the 
furnace  itself,  should  be  fully  covered  with  cellular 
asbestos  or  equivalent  incombustible  material  at  least 
yi  inch  thick  for  the  pipes,  and  i inch  for  the  furnace. 
Such  covering  is  inexpensive,  and  reduces  coal  bills 
by  conserving  the  furnace  heat.  It  is  much  used  for 
this  purpose  alone.  The  covering  is  manufactured  for 
the  purpose,  and  sold  in  rolls.  It  is  inch  thick,  and 
should  be  used  in  double  layers  with  broken  joints. 
Suitable  metal  bands  to  hold  it  in  place  are  supplied. 

It  is  common  practice  to  simply  cover  hot  air  pipes 
with  a sheet  of  thin  asbestos  paper  pasted  to  the  pipe. 
Such  protection  is  merely  a pretense.  It  may  have  a 
little  value  as  a heat  insulator,  but  has  practically 
none  as  a fire-resistant.  It  deserves  no  consideration. 


Chimneys. — Connection  between  chimney 
and  roof  shall  be  made  with  sheet  metal  flash- 
ing, arranged  to  overlap  and  allow  for  move- 
ment that  may  occur  between  chimney  and 
roof.  See  Plate  V. 

No  wooden  beams  or  joists  shall  be  placed 
within  2 inches  of  the  outside  face  of  a chimney 
or  flue,  whether  the  same  be  for  smoke,  air  or 
any  other  purpose.  No  woodwork  shall  be 
within  4 inches  of  the  back  face  of  the  wall  of 
any  fireplace. 

All  spaces  between  the  chimney  and  wooden 
beams  shall  be  filled  with  mineral  wool,  loose 
cinders,  gypsum  block,  or  other  porous  incom- 
bustible material.  See  Plates  IV,  VI  and  VII. 

No  fire-stopping  should  be  in  any  manner 
concealed  from  view  until  opportunity  has 
been  given  the  owner  or  his  representative  to 
inspect  same.  This  is  particularly  important 
when  work  is  done  under  contract. 

Although  it  would  not  be  practicable  to  fire- 
stop  an  existing  house  as  completely  as  here 
recommended  for  new  construction,  neverthe- 
less it  would  be  quite  feasible  to  apply  several 
of  the  suggestions  to  any  existing  house  in  which 
such  barriers  had  been  omitted,  and  would 
materially  lessen  the  fire  risk. 


THE  CHOICE  OF  BUIEDING 
MATERIAES  FOR  INDUS- 
TRIAE  HOMES 


“Evolution  and  ox])ericnce  have  pointed  to  the  frame  house  as  the  ‘fittest  survivor’  of  the  exacting  con- 
ditions in  New  England.  It  is  cheap,  warm,  dry,  easy  to  build,  to  enlarge  or  alter.  It  is  practically  as  safe 
from  conflagration  as  a house  with  exterior  walls  of  masonry  if  built  with  fire-resisting  roof  and  with  proper 
s]>ace  between  houses.  No  other  kind  of  construction  offers  the  same  comlfination  of  advantages.  Masonry 
offers  less  resistance  to  cold  and  heat,  as  engineers  have  proved.  It  is  not  so  dry.  It  is  more  difficult  to  enlarge 
or  alter,  and  presents  more  work  in  building,  especially  in  winter.  It  costs  more,  though  somewhat  cheaper  to 
maintain.” — William  Roger  Gredy,  the  arehiteet,  in  ‘’'Housing  the  Low  Paid  Workman,"  an  article  written  in 
co)inection  with  the  housing  development  of  the  Massachusetts  Homestead  Commission. 


There  are  about  140  distinct  or  related 
species  of  wood  found  in  the  U^nited 
States  which  are  important  as  sources 
of  commercial  lumber.  Of  these  140  species,  a 
few  have  only  local  fields  of  usefulness;  many 
are  more  or  less  well  suited  to  a variety  of 
structural  or  manufacturing  ]nir])oses,  but  their 
supply  is  limited.  Among  the  commercial 
woods,  Southern  ])ine  is  unic|ue  in  that  it  not 
only  is  the  most  plentiful  wood,  but  it  is  adapted 
to  a greater  variety  of  uses  than  any  other  wood 
that  grows. 

Although  definitely  restricted  in  the  area  of 
its  growth,  the  qualities  and  adaptability  of 
Southern  pine  are  so  varied  that  its  distribution 
is  limited  only  by  the  confines  of  cix'ilization 
and  the  facilities  for  transportation.  In  Amer- 
ica its  place  in  manufacture  and  building  con- 
struction is  such  that  approximately  40  per 
cent  of  all  the  lumber  consumed  is  Southern 
pine,  while  in  normal  times  enormous  quan- 
tities go  to  Europe,  South  America  and  Africa. 
More  than  2,000  sawmills  are  running  every 
working  day  in  the  year  to  supply  the  demand 
for  Southern  pine,  the  annual  production  of 
which  is  normally  in  excess  of  14  billion  board 
feet  — nearly  three  times  as  great  as  that  of 
any  other  one  wood  and  equal  to  the  combined 
production  of  the  four  other  most  useful  woods. 

“Southern  pine”  is  the  generic  name  for  a 
number  of  more  or  less  closely  related  species, 


including  “ longleaf  pine,”  “shortleaf  pine,” 
“Cuban  ])ine”  and  “Loblolly  pine,”  as  well  as 
various  representatives  of  these  species  familiar 
to  the  trade  as  “Georgia  pine,”  “hard  pine,” 
“yellow  pine,”  “Arkansas  soft  pine,”  etc. 
“Longleaf”  Southern  pine  is  commonly  used 
for  framing,  heavy  timbers,  trestles,  trusses, 
etc., — wherever  the  requirements  demand  su- 
perlative strength;  “shortleaf”  Southern  pine 
is  more  generally  used  for  interior  finish  and 
wherever  extraordinary  strength  is  not  a con- 
sideration. In  ordinary  home  construction, 
however,  both  varieties  are  commonly  used 
without  discrimination.  Of  the  Southern  pines 
the  United  States  Forest  Service  says  in  Cir- 
cular 164.  “Properties  and  L^ses  of  the  Southern 
Pines:” 

“IMalerial  for  construction  purposes  is  chosen  for 
its  strength,  stiffness  and  durability.  Longleaf  pine 
possesses  these  properties  to  such  a high  degree  that 
it  has  long  been  the  standard  structural  timber  in  the 
United  States.  . . . Longleaf  pine  is  unsurpassed  as 
a structural  timber,  and  finds  a wide  use  in  bridge, 
trestle,  warehouse  and  factory  construction  in  the 
form  of  dimension  timbers,  posts,  piles  and  joists.  It 
makes  an  excellent  material  for  spars  and  masts,  large 
quantities  being  exported  to  England  for  such  use. 
In  the  building  of  railroad  cars  longleaf  pine  is  largely 
used  on  account  of  its  strength  and  stiffness.  It  is  also 
employed  to  a large  extent  for  flooring,  on  account  of 
its  hardness  and  wearing  qualities. 

“Shortleaf  and  Loblolly  are  used  principally  for 
building  lumber,  such  as  interior  finish,  flooring,  ceiling, 
frames  and  sashes,  wainscoting,  weatherboarding, 
joists,  lath  and  shingles.  ...” 


228 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


229 


The  Use  of  Southern  Pine  in  Home 
Building 

Southern  pine  is  particularly  recommended 
for  use  in  home  building,  not  only  because  it  is 
more  plentiful  and  lower  priced  than  any  other 
wood  of  anything  like  its  high  quality,  but 
because  of  its  remarkable  adaptability.  No 
other  wood  is  universally  used  for  every  require- 
ment in  building  large  and  small  structures  — 
for  framing  where  strength  and  rigidity  are 
essential;  for  exterior  trim  and  finish,  where 
durability  and  resistance  to  weather-wear  are 
important  considerations,  and  for  interior  trim, 
where  beauty  of  grain,  workability  and  compact 
texture  are  requisites.  It  is,  in  fact,  the  only 
wood  that  is  extensively  manufactured  into 
every  form  of  material  used  in  home  building  — 
for  framing  timbers,  for  siding,  for  shingles,  for 
lath,  for  flooring,  for  columns,  for  newel  posts 
and  stairs,  for  panels,  baseboards  and  mould- 
ings, for  doors  and  door  casings,  for  window 
casings, — everywhere  and  for  every  purpose 
wood  is  used. 

Southern  pine  is  regularly  carried  in  stock 
by  lumber  dealers  everywhere  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  It  is  comparatively  inex- 
pensive because  it  is  so  plentiful.  It  is  most 
economical,  not  only  in  first  cost,  but  because 
it  is  capable  of  giving  a lifetime  of  honest  serv- 
ice wherever  wood  is  properly  used. 

The  Interior  of  the  Home 

A tremendous  impetus  has  been  given  the  use 
of  Southern  pine  for  interior  trim  by  recent 
improvements  in  the  methods  of  treating  this 
wood  with  paints,  stains  and  enamels.  Southern 
pine  has  long  occupied  a position  of  first  im- 
portance for  interior  use  — for  “standing  trim” 
and  floors  — in  home  building  where  the  natural 
light  color  of  the  wood  was  in  harmony  with  the 
decorative  scheme  employed;  in  some  instances, 
however,  other  and  more  expensive  materials 
were  employed  to  obtain  darker  and  more 
varied  effects,  because  the  user  did  not  appre- 
ciate the  fact  that  Southern  pine  might  be 
stained  any  tone  or  color  desired.  Even 
painters  and  some  manufacturers  of  colors  and 
varnishes  at  one  time  were  of  the  opinion  that 


Southern  pine  was  “a  hard  wood  to  paint.” 
Paint  manufacturers  realized,  however,  that 
this  wood  was  of  such  importance  that  it 
merited  special  study,  with  the  result  that 
slight  modifications  in  the  methods  of  treat- 
ment completely  eliminated  any  difficulties 
that  formerly  existed.  It  is  now  understood  by 
paint  makers,  as  well  as  by  well  informed  archi- 
tects, painting  contractors  and  professional 
builders  everywhere  that  Southern  pine,  proper- 
ly treated,  not  only  may  be  stained  to  any 
desired  shade,  thereby  retaining  all  of  the 
beauty  of  the  natural  grain  of  the  wood,  but 
that  it  takes  and  holds  perfectly  and  perma- 
nently every  variety  of  paints  and  enamels. 
The  “special”  treatment  required  is  of  the 
simplest  character,  differing  but  little  (and 
with  no  extra  expense)  from  that  governing 
good  workmanship  in  finishing  others  of  the 
leading  building  woods.  And  by  the  intelligent 
observance  of  these  rules  in  the  use  of  Southern 
pine  for  interiors  it  is  easily  possible  to  produce 
all  the  richness  and  variety  of  rare  hardwoods, 
and  at  a cost  much  less  than  would  be  entailed 
in  the  employment  of  any  other  variety  of  any- 
thing like  the  same  intrinsic  merit.  This  fact 
is  now  so  generally  conceded  that  Southern 
pine  is  being  employed  more  and  more  for 
interior  trim  in  the  most  important  buildings 
and  the  finest  homes,  as  well  as  in  structures  of 
a more  modest  character. 

Full  instructions,  prepared  by  national  au- 
thorities, for  finishing  Southern  pine  exteriors 
and  interiors  are  contained  in  the  Southern 
pine  Association  booklets,  “The  Interior  of 
Your  Home”  and  “Beauty  Plus  Service  in 
Floors.”  These  are  mailed  free  upon  request. 

Quality  Floors  of  Southern  Pine 

If  you  are  not  already  a user  of  Southern  pine 
flooring,  we  ask  that  you  disabuse  your  mind 
of  any  possible  idea  that  this  material  is  in  an}’ 
sense  a “makeshift”  or  “cheap”  substitute  for 
the  hardwoods  commonly  used  in  the  past  for 
high-class  floors.  The  better  grades  of  Southern 
pine  edge-grain  (or  quarter-sawed)  flooring, 
as  manufactured  today,  not  only  have  all  the 
good  qualities  of  the  higher  priced  hardwoods, 


230 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


.4  door  of  “curly'’  Southern 
Pine 


Southern  Pine  Panels,  showing  the  remarkably  varied  and  beautiful 
grain  of  the  wood 


Edge-grain  {quarter- 
sawed)  SouthernPine 
Flooring,  the  last  word 
in  beauty  and  dura- 
bility 


Southern  Pine  is  a Wood  of  Infinite  Variety  of  Grain 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


231 


but  in  some  respects  are  distinctly  superior  to 
them.  The  lower  cost  of  Southern  pine  floor- 
ing as  compared  with  other  woods  suited  to 
such  use,  is  due  to  the  fact  that  Southern  pine  is 
very  plentiful,  not  that  it  is  in  any  way 
inferior. 

Southern  pine  flooring  has  an  exceptionally 
handsome,  even  grain,  a compact,  velvety 
texture,  and  a pleasing  natural  color.  If  a 
darker  color  is  desired,  this  material,  properly 
treated,  takes  and  holds  stains  perfectly,  so 
that  it  is  possible  to  obtain  any  shade  or  tone 
suited  to  your  taste  or  requirements. 

Because  of  the  “close,”  compact  grain  of 
Southern  pine  it  makes  a smoother  floor,  more 
easily  finished  than  do  some  hardwoods  in 
common  use.  Furthermore,  this  close,  even 
grain  presents  a surface  that  resists  wear  as 
effectually  as  any  hardwood  and  that  will  with- 
stand decay  longer  than  any  other  wood  used 
for  flooring. 

Southern  pine  flooring,  unlike  much  other 
flooring  material,  has  comparatively  few  short 
lengths.  That  feature,  combined  with  its  supe- 
rior workability,  makes  it  exceptionally  easy 
and  economical  to  handle  and  lay. 


Dependability  of  Southern  Pine 
Grades 

More  than  220  of  the  largest  Southern  saw- 
mills are  subscribers  to  the  Southern  Pine 
Association,  and  the  lumber  production  of  these 
mills  exceeds  5 billion  board  feet  annually.  The 
quality  of  the  Southern  pine  they  market  is 
absolutely  guaranteed  under  grading  rules 
adopted  as  standard  by  the  Association,  the 
United  States  Government,  the  American 
Society  for  Testing  Materials,  and  by  the  lum- 
ber trade  generally.  The  density  rule,  devised 
by  the  United  States  Forest  Service  is  for 
determining  the  strength  of  Southern  pine 
timbers  used  in  hea\^  construction,  and  is  an 
infallible,  yet  simple,  guide  in  the  purchase  of 
material  that  is  to  be  subjected  to  extraord- 
inary stresses.  There  are  special  rules  for 
grading  car  material  and  other  special  sizes  of 
lumber,  and  a complete  and  rigid  system  for 
grading  all  material  used  in  homebuilding. 

That  these  grading  rules  may  be  thoroughly 
understood  and  intelligently  enforced  the 
Southern  Pine  Association  maintains  a staff  of 
seventeen  expert  lumber  inspectors.  Eleven 


Probably  more  Southern  Pine  is  used  for  trim  in  sanitary  kitchens  and  pantries  than  all  other  woods  combined.  That  is  because 
Southern  Pine  not  only  is  most  economical,  but  its  dense  grain  prevents  the  absorption  of  fumes  from  cooking  and  it  takes 
and  holds  perfectly  enamel  paints,  the  popular  kitchen  finishing  materials. 


232 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


of  these  men  are  constantly  in  the  held  among 
the  mills,  six  of  them  dividing  their  time  among 
the  mills  west  of  the  Mississippi  River  and 
hve  with  mills  east  of  the  river.  All  of  their 
energies  are  devoted  to  maintaining  uniform 
grading  methods  and  instructing  mill  employees 
in  the  inter])retation  and  application  of  the 
standard  grading  rules. 

There  are  eight  of  the  official  insjiectors 
permanently  in  the  Northern  consuming  ter- 
ritory. 'rhe  business  of  these  ins]>ectors  is  to 
investigate  any  complaints  which  may  be 
registered  by  receivers  of  Southern  pine  lumber 
who  may  believe  that  they  have  not  received 
the  proper  tender  according  to  the  standard 
grading  rules;  and,  on  readiest,  these  experts 
will  supervise  the  ins[)ection  of  lumber  delivered 
on  large  orders  to  ]>rivate  users  anywhere. 
These  precautions  are  amjily  sufficient  to  full)’ 
])rotect  users  of  Southern  ])ine  who  will  take 
the  jirecaution  to  use  care  in  the  specification 
of  grades  ordered  and  to  a\ail  themselves  of 


the  co-o{)eration  of  Southern  Pine  Association 
inspectors. 

Informative  Literature  Published  by 
the  Southern  Association 

Among  the  many  helpful  publications  issued 
by  the  Southern  Pine  Association,  the  following 
are  of  especial  value  to  the  large  user  of  that 
material.  Any  of  them  will  be  sent  gratis, 
promptly  on  request. 

Standard  Grading  Rules  for  Southern  Pine. 

Car  Material  Specifications. 

Table  of  Southern  Pine  Weights  and  Freight  De- 
liveries. 

The  Interior  of  Your  Home.  (Rules  for  Finishing.) 
Beauty  Plus  Service  in  Floors.  (Rules  for  Finishing 
Floors. ) 

School  Architecture  (The  Pavilion  Type  School). 
Manual  of  Standard  Wood  Construction  (Technical). 
Floors  of  Service  (Creosoted  Southern  Pine  Wood 
Blocks). 

Standard-Mill  Construction  (Technical). 

List  of  Southern  Pine  Association  Subscribers. 
Timber  Trestles  and  Bridges  (Technical). 


The  living  room  of  a home  in  the  exclusive  Country  Club  district,  Kansas  City.  In  this  room  all  of  the  trim 
(finished  in  old  ivory  enamel)  and  the  floor  are  of  Southern  Pine. 


SCHOOL  HOUSES 

THAT  COMBINE  THE  FEATURES  OF  ECONOMY,  UTILITY,  SAFETY  AND 

ARCHITECTURAL  BEAUTY 


Architectural  design  in  school 

buildings  in  this  country  outside  the 
■ large  cities  seemingly  has  been  limited 
in  the  past  to  very  meager  expression  — the 
types  commonly  seen  being  restricted,  in  fact, 
to  just  two.  In  new  and  sparsely  settled  neigh- 
borhoods the  first  school  buildings  have  been  of 
the  plainest  and  most  primitive  character, 
mere  square  “boxes,”  gable  or  hip-roofed,  and 
innocent  of  embellishment  within  or  without. 
As  the  communities  have  grown  and  the  school 
population  increased,  the  early  “rural”  build- 
ings have  been  succeeded  by  pretentious  imita- 
tions of  “city”  schools,  scarcely  more  attractive 
structures  of  brick  or  stone,  two  or  more  stories 
in  height  and  not  remarkable  for  their  conven- 
ient arrangement.  When  in  course  of  time 
one  of  the  larger  structures  no  longer  would 
meet  all  the  requirements  of  the  population, 
more  buildings  of  the  same  type  were  erected. 

Believing  there  is  much  room  for  improve- 
ment in  present  methods  of  housing  school 
children,  the  Southern  Pine  Association  in- 
augurated an  architectural  competition  by 
which  it  was  hoped  to  show  that  school  build- 
ings of  the  most  moderate  cost,  as  well  as  those 
suited  to  the  accommodation  of  relatively  large 
numbers  of  pupils,  might  be  made  to  combine 
beauty  with  simplicity,  and  at  the  same  time 
possess  advantages  of  convenience  not  found 
in  the  commonplace,  hackneyed  school  archi- 
tectural forms.  To  this  end  the  Association 
sent  out  a general  invitation  to  architects, 
offering  cash  prizes  for  the  best  designs  for 
what  has  been  styled  the  “Pavilion  Type” 
school  building.  Herewith  are  presented  the 
first,  second  and  third  prize  designs  submitted 
in  that  competition,  chosen  from  a great  many 
entries  submitted  from  all  parts  of  the  country, 
and  reproduced  from  the  Association  booklet, 
“School  Architecture.” 


What  the  “Pavilion  Type”  Is 

The  Pavilion  Type  school  building  is  a one- 
story  structure,  designed  to  be  built  in  units 
around  an  open  court,  these  several  units  to  be 
connected  by  covered  cloisters.  The  plan  lends 
itself  particularly  to  the  needs  of  rural  com- 
munities, towns  and  small  cities,  because  it 
provides  for  class  room  space  only  as  it  is 
needed.  Beginning  with  a single  unit  building, 
other  units  are  to  be  added  to  meet  require- 
ments of  the  growing  school  population  until 
the  entire  cycle  is  completed,  forming  an  archi- 
tecturally harmonious  whole  that  encloses  the 
school  playground.  Among  the  special  advan- 
tages of  the  Pavilion  Type  school  are: 

Latitude  in  design  of  the  various  units,  giving  the 
architect  the  opportunity  to  create  structures  that  are 
artistically  pleasing,  as  well  as  practical. 

The  units,  being  one-story  structures  of  moderate 
size  and  semi-detached,  are  readily  provided  with  ample 
light  and  ventilation,  while  lending  themselves  to  the 
most  economical  methods  of  construction,  as  small 
communities  may  erect  one  or  more  units  at  a time  as 
needed. 

The  various  unit  buildings,  assembled  about  an  open 
court,  permit  of  larger  playground  space  in  an  unbroken 
area,  in  contrast  to  the  narrow  and  “cut  up”  play- 
ground spaces  resulting  from  the  common  custom  of 
locating  the  school  building  at  or  near  the  center  of 
the  school  grounds. 

The  unit  buildings,  being  of  one  story  only,  eliminate 
danger  of  injury  or  loss  of  life  by  fire.  High  buildings 
used  for  schools  subject  pupils,  teachers  and  parents  to 
incessant  nervous  tension,  the  uneasiness  incident  to 
constant  apprehension  of  fire.  In  the  Pavilion  Type 
school  building  there  not  only  is  no  danger  of  children 
being  cut  off  from  escape  from  a burning  building,  but 
there  is  no  danger  of  fire  panic  — mad  rushes  in  which 
children  are  hurt  more  often  than  in  the  fire  itself. 
There  is  no  record  in  this  country  of  a school  pupil 
losing  his  life  by  fire  in  a one-story  school  building. 

Stair  climbing,  often  a serious  hardship,  especially  for 
girl  pupils,  is  done  away  with  in  the  Pa^'ilion  Type 
school. 

The  covered  cloisters  connecting  the  units  of  Pavilion 
Type  school  buildings  provide  convenient  spaces  for 
holding  outdoor  classes  in  i)leasant  weather,  an  advan- 


233 


234 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


The  Pavilion  Type  School  House,  Particularly  Adapted  to  Industrial  Community  Developments. 


4 

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HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN  235 


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M’OLNINC 

Variety  in  Designing  the  Pavilion  Type  School. 


There  is  Opportunity  for  Infinite 


236 


HOMES 


FOR  WORKMEN 


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Another  Attractive  Design  of  the  Pavilion  Type  School  House. 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


237 


tage  tending  to  promote  the  health  and  comfort  of 
pupils  and  teachers. 

The  central  playground,  away  from  the  street,  is 
safer  for  the  children  and  keeps  them  more  directly 
under  the  eyes  of  supervising  instructors.  In  addition, 
a portion  of  the  open  court  may  be  roofed  over,  provid- 
ing a covered  open  air  playground  in  wet  and  stormy 
weather. 

The  Pavilion  Type  of  school,  while  lending  itself 
perfectly  to  the  most  economical  frame  construction 
with  no  sacrifice  of  serviceability,  further  saves  the 
necessity  of  growing  communities  assuming  a heavy 


indebtedness  for  large  buildings  designed  to  meet 
future,  rather  than  present  needs. 

The  designs  submitted  in  the  Southern  Pine 
Association  architectural  contest  provide  for 
the  unit  buildings  being  separated  by  not  less 
than  twenty-five  feet;  each  building  to  contain 
from  one  to  three  rooms,  each  room  capable  of 
accommodating  not  less  than  thirty-hve  pupils, 
and  each  building  to  be  generously  lighted  and 
ventilated,  and  equipped  with  cloak  closets,  etc. 


9 


238 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


% 


Chief  E)igineer's  Cottage,  Pascagoula,  Miss. 


General  Superintendent' s House  of  Ten  Rooms.  Pascagoula,  Miss. 


PASCAGOULA,  MISSISSIPPI 

A HOUSING  DEVELOPMENT  FOR  THE  EMPLOYEES  OF  THE 
INTERNATIONAL  SHIPBUILDING  COMPANY 


WHEN  the  International  Shipbuilding 
Company  undertook  emergency  ship 
construction  shortly  after  the  entrance 
of  the  United  States  into  the  late  war,  labor 
housing  facilities  at  the  town  of  Pascagoula, 
Mississippi,  where  stands  the  company’s  plant, 
were  found  to  be  entirely  inadecpiate  to  take 
care  of  the  large  force  of  workmen  required  for 
the  plant. 

The  company  immediately  undertook  the 
construction  of  homes  for  its  workmen,  the 
plans  providing  for  structures  of  from  three 
to  nine  rooms  each,  and  of  attractive  design. 
To  provide  sites  for  these  homes  about  300 
acres  of  land  were  purchased  in  Pascagoula 
adjacent  to  the  shipyards.  This  land  was  plat- 
ted, and  by  the  beginning  of  1919,  285  homes 
had  been  completed.  The  general  plan  pro- 
vides for  the  erection  of  approximately  400 
houses,  which  will  fully  occupy  the  available 
ground  owned  by  the  company,  as  well  as  for 
a number  of  community  buildings. 


As  the  homes  were  erected  water  mains  and 
sewers  were  laid,  and  all  of  the  houses  were 
supplied  with  city  water  and  electric  lights. 
Streets  were  laid  out  with  an  eye  to  beauty  and 
utility,  and  were  im]:>roved  as  rapidly  as  pos- 
sible during  the  progress  of  the  home  building. 
The  general  plan  provides  for  a civic  center  and 
community  recreation  house,  and  the  company 
will  operate  a hospital  for  the  benefit  of  em- 
ployees. 

All  the  homes  are  built  of  Southern  pine 
throughout,  following  varied  exterior  designs 
with  a view  of  avoiding  architectural  monotony 
and  adding  attractiveness  to  the  community. 
The  exteriors  of  all  houses  are  stained  in 
agreeable  shades,  and  the  shingles  used  in  roof- 
ing also  vary  in  color. 

The  homes  are  rented  to  the  workmen  ten- 
ants on  such  terms  as  to  make  them  highly 
desirable  from  the  tenants’  standpoint,  while 
at  the  same  time  returning  a reasonable  return 
on  the  investment  to  the  company. 


Front  Elevation  and  Floor  Plan  of  j-Rooni  House,  Pascagoula,  Miss. 

239 


240 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


Houses  at  St.  Albans,  W.  Va.,  with  Floor  Plans  of  Types  J and  B Houses 


5e-C0nd  Fj.o  o f(.  Pi,  an 


ST.  ALBANS,  WEST  VIRGINIA 

A DE\  ELOPMENT  FOR  THE  ROESSLER-HASSLACHER  COMPANY 
Murphy  & Dana,  Architects 


Date  of  Coiistnictioii:  May,  1917. 

Cost:  Per  family  'Pvpe  “A” — $1,500;  IN’pe 
“B”— $1,600.' 

Rents:  Per  month  Type  “A” — $12;  Type 
“B”— $15. 

Type:  Groups  of  two-family  houses  (see  plan). 
Type  “A” — four  rooms  per  family;  T)pe 
“B” — six  rooms  per  family. 

Construction:  Entirely  of  frame  supported  on 
wood  posts.  No  cellar. 

Exterior  Finish:  Walls  of  clapboards  painted 
white,  applied  over  building  paper  and  wood 
sheathing.  Roofs — Dark  gray  asbestos  roof- 
ing over  wood  sheathing.  Exterior  trim, 
including  doors,  door  frames,  window  sash 
and  window  frames,  painted  apple-green. 


Interior  Finish:  Walls  and  ceilings  of  com- 
position board,  papered  in  the  bedrooms 
and  painted  in  living  rooms  and  kitchens. 
Floors  of  pine  coated  with  waterproofing 
material.  Doors  and  trim  painted. 

Heating:  Steam  heat — source;  exhaust  steam 
from  boilers  in  chemical  plant. 

Lighting:  Electricity;  gas  for  cooking  only. 

Special  Features:  Vegetable  pit  for  storage 
with  trap  door  in  kitchen.  Large  groups  of 
casement  windows  in  bedrooms  so  that  each 
bedroom  is  practically  an  open-air  sleeping 
porch;  the  reason  for  this  being  that  the 
tenants  using  these  houses  very  often  work 
all  night  and  have  to  sleep  during  the  hot 
part  of  the  day.  The  side  walls  and  ceihngs 
of  bedrooms  are  insulated  with  4^-inch  thick 
fiber-felt  insulating  material. 


BROADER  ECONOMY  IN  THE  MAINTENANCE 
OF  AN  INDUSTRIAL  VILLAGE 

By  HORACE  B.  MANN 


IN  a general  analysis  of  the  proper  and  econ- 
omical maintenance  and  management  of 
an  industrial  housing  group,  the  subject 
naturally  divides  itself  into  two  aspects  for 
consideration  as  follows: 

I.  Physical  maintenance,  involving  inspections  and 
timely  repairs  in  a constant  effort  to  check  depreciation. 

2.  The  human  element  in  maintenance,  taking  ad- 
vantage of  deliberately  induced  psychological  reactions 
and  commonizing  the  interests  of  tenants  and  the 
housing  company. 

A definite  reason  to  which  may  be  ascribed 
the  failure  of  many  promising  housing  projects 
has  been  the  inability  or  unwillingness  of  the 
original  owner  or  developer  (usually  a manu- 
facturer) to  realize  the  great  importance  of 
properly  maintaining  the  community,  socially 
as  well  as  from  the  purely  physical  viewpoint. 

This  general  attitude  on  the  part  of  American 
manufacturers  has  in  many  cases  resulted  in  a 
termination  of  direct  interest,  once  the  houses 
were  built  and  tenanted.  This  has  been  par- 
tially due  to  their  unwillingness  to  attempt  an 
apparently  expensive  program  of  supervision, 
although  in  reality  if  such  supervision  were 
placed  upon  a systematic,  common  sense  basis, 
it  would  repay  the  cost  many  times  over  in  the 
saving  on  depreciation  and  mechanical  cost, 
and  in  maintaining  the  intrinsic  and  social 
value  of  the  community.  The  problem  of 
maintenance  is  not  a burden  to  be  cast  aside, 
but  constitutes  the  often  unrecognized  basic 
factor  of  the  success  or  failure  of  the  entire 
project. 

Maintenance  Not  So  Difficult 

Maintenance  is  not  so  difficult  a problem  as 
it  may  seem  on  first  approach.  It  offers  as  an 
inducement  for  its  successful  solution  a fair 


return  on  invested  money;  increased  labor 
efficiency;  closer  co-operation  of  employer  and 
employee,  and  the  fostering  of  proper  pride  on 
the  part  of  both  in  good  living  and  working 
conditions.  This  helps  to  reduce  labor  turnover 
and  contributes  its  quota  to  increased  plant 
efficiency.  These  are  the  greater  dividends  on 
housing  investment,  and  only  through  main- 
tenance may  they  be  kept  up. 

Immediately  upon  the  completion  of  a group 
of  industrial  homes  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to 
establish  a definite  policy  of  maintenance. 
Only  the  most  inexcusable  shortsightedness 
would  permit  the  making  of  a large  invest- 
ment and  trusting  to  the  occupant’s  interest 
to  keep  up  the  property. 

The  close  supervision  of  the  property  can 
best  be  done  by  a social  worker  who  has  the 
confidence  and  trust  of  the  tenants.  This 
question  will  be  considered  further  in  later 
paragraphs.  There  should  be  a regularly 
established  repair  crew,  or  if  the  village  is  a 
small  one,  a single  “jack  of  all  trades”  could  be 
employed.  Reports  of  needed  repairs  will  be 
made  to  the  crew  or  to  the  official  in  charge 
by  the  social  worker  and  by  the  tenants  them- 
selves. In  addition  to  this,  the  crew  should  be 
instructed  to  make  regular  inspections  at  least 
monthly,  and  following  the  examjile  of  large  real 
estate  management  companies  a regular  in- 
spection form  should  be  j^rovided  for  report. 
Tenants  should  be  educated  to  promptly  report 
needed  repairs,  and  a line  should  be  drawn  dis- 
tinctly between  needed  repairs  and  alterations 
and  additions  to  suit  the  tenants’  taste. 
Changes  and  alterations  which  the  tenant  de- 
sires may  well  be  made  as  a premium  for  the 
prompt  ]:»ayment  of  rent  or  neatness  in  which 
the  place  is  kept. 


241 


242 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


Keeping  Down  Repair  Costs 

An  interesting  method  of  kee})ing  down 
repair  costs,  and  inducing  the  tenant  to  make 
his  own  minor  rej^airs,  has  l)een  carried  out  by 
the  Gerard  restate,  Philadeli)hia,  Pa.,  by  the 
()cta\’ia  Hill  Association,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  and 
some  others.  If  the  tenant  keeps  the  property 
in  good  repair  and  i>ays  his  rent  jn’omptly  for 
eleven  months,  he  is  not  re([uired  to  i>ay  the 
twelfth  month’s  rent;  any  repairs  needed  are 
deducted  from  this  rebate  and  the  balance 
remitted  to  the  tenant. 

Another  method  of  maintaining  repairs  is  to 
make  a monthly  arrangement  with  a local  firm 
to  inspect  the  pro])erty  and  handle  all  repairs 
uix)n  recpiest  from  the  owner.  In  making  such 
arrangement  it  is  best  to  have  inspection  re- 
ports made  by  this  concern,  showing  needed 
repairs,  liut  allowing  no  work  to  be  done  excej^t 
on  direct  orders  from  the  com])any. 

Promptness  in  making  needed  repairs  means 
a large  saving  during  the  course  of  a year.  A 
small  leak  in  the  roof,  if  neglected,  would  entail 
replastering  ceilings  and  repairing  other  damage 
done  by  the  water. 

Following  are  some  suggestions  which  offer 
money-saving  ]X)ssibilities  in  the  maintenance 
of  an  industrial  village; 

•\fter  heavy  storms  look  at  the  ceilings  of  the 
top  floor  for  traces  of  water  indicating  leaky 
roofs. 

When  building  is  vacated,  be  sure  the  water 
is  turned  off,  and  in  cold  weather  drain  it  from 
the  pi])es,  not  only  in  the  plumbing  system  but 
where  steam  heat  is  used,  from  the  steam  heat- 
ing or  hot  water  system  as  well,  \\kiter  should 
also  be  syringed  out  of  traps. 

See  that  the  grading  around  the  building  is 
such  as  to  shed  surface  water  awa}'  from  the 
building  rather  than  bringing  it  into  the  cellar 
and  around  the  foundations,  with  ensuing 
deterioration  throughout  the  house. 

The  Care  of  Empty  Houses 

Empty  houses  should  have  all  rubbish  re- 
moved and  blinds  shut  and  fastened  on  the 
inside  and  shutters  over  the  windows.  These 
should  be  inspected  regularly  to  see  that  all 


doors  and  windows  are  locked.  Very  frequently 
a house  is  badly  damaged  by  mischievous  boys. 

See  that  tenants  do  not  drive  nails  into 
plaster  or  woodwork. 

Picture  mouldings  should  be  furnished  for 
hanging  wall  decorations,  and  it  has  been 
found  wise  to  sup])ly  each  house  with  free 
picture  wire  and  hooks.* 

Periodic  inspection  should  be  made  of  plumb- 
ing fixtures.  Leaky  faucets  should  be  repaired. 
Pro])er  chemicals  should  be  poured  down 
kitchen  sinks.  This  should  be  done  in  laundry 
trays  as  well,  as  much  grease  accumulates  at 
this  })oint. 

At  the  end  of  the  winter  the  heating  system 
should  be  gone  over  and  smoke  pipes  taken 
down  and  cleaned.  This  will  greatly  increase 
the  life  of  pij^es. 

Outside  masonry  should  be  kept  pointed  up, 
especially  around  the  top  of  chimneys. 

Economy  In  Frequent  Painting 

Frecjuent  painting  of  exterior  woodwork  not 
only  keeps  the  house  looking  fresh,  but  costs  no 
more  in  the  end,  because  when  neglected  the 
wood  dries  out  and  has  so  increased  in  absorp- 
tive power  that  one  or  two  extra  coats  have  to 
be  put  on  to  o\’ercome  this.  Buildings  should 
be  repainted  at  least  once  every  three  years. 

Wooden  structural  members  should  be  re- 
placed wherever  signs  of  rot  appear.  Rot  in 
porch  floors  and  steps  is  due  to  their  being 
built  so  that  they  hold  rain  water  instead  of 
shedding  it.  Porch  floors  should  never  be 
tongued  and  grooved,  as  water  is  retained  in 
the  groove  and  rotting  quickly  sets  in. 

An  important  question  for  consideration  is 
whether  maintenance  should  be  handled  by  the 
housing  company  or  by  an  association  of  the 
tenant  owners  of  the  property.  This  brings  up 

* One  company  which  recently  built  a large  number  of  very 
cheap  bungalows  for  foreigners  has  found  the  question  of  sub- 
stantial plastering  a most  important  item.  The  plastering  in  these 
houses  was  very  cheap  and  thin,  and  was  soon  badly  broken  in 
many  places.  Substantial  plastering  in  this  case  would  have 
stood  up  much  better  and  saved  the  cost  of  entire  replastering. 
In  these  houses  the  evidence  of  the  value  of  a properly  trained 
social  worker  was  soon  shown.  INIany  of  the  workmen  and  their 
families  did  not  know  how  to  live  in  a decent  house.  They  de- 
stroyed interior  woodwork,  burned  the  interior  doors,  and  in 
other  ways  caused  rapid  depreciation  which  educational  work  on 
the  part  of  the  social  worker  could  have  prevented. 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


243 


the  question  of  the  human  element  in  the 
maintenance  of  an  industrial  village. 

The  H uman  Element  In 
Maintenance 

If  the  tenants  are  generally  of  an  intelligent 
type,  it  is  well  to  let  them  handle  practically  all 
matters  of  maintenance  through  a community 
organization.  In  this  organization  the  housing 
company  should  maintain  a vote  of  at  least  25 
per  cent.  Where  houses  are  sold,  this  control  is 
often  kept  by  retaining  the  ownership  of 
streets,  parks,  and  playgrounds.  This  associa- 
tion may  maintain  a rejrair  crew  and  will  also 
cover  public  maintenance,  such  as  the  keeping 
up  of  lawns  and  parking  spaces,  shrubbery  and 
trees,  leaving  the  back  yards  in  care  of  individ- 
ual tenants.  Where  public  utilities  and  road 
repairs  are  not  maintained  by  the  city  of  which 
the  community  may  be  a part,  the  community 
association  usually  has  charge  of  these  and  also 
the  shoveling  of  walks  in  winter,  the  removal 
of  garbage  and  ashes  and  other  sanitary  main- 
tenance. The  cost  of  such  maintenance  may 
be  distributed  against  the  property  as  a tax,  or 
it  may  be  carried  on  at  the  expense  of  the  own- 
ing company  until  such  time  as  the  tenants  may 
become  educated  to  bearing  their  proper  share. 

For  extension  and  improvement  of  public 
utilities,  various  methods  are  followed,  one  be- 
ing to  assess  against  individual  property  owners 
in  the  usual  manner,  another  to  add  this 
potential  cost  to  the  land  before  resale,  and  still 
another  by  popular  subscription.  It  is  often 
found  that  the  general  community  may  be 
induced  to  maintain  the  roads  and  parks  and 
to  put  public  utilities  into  the  housing  develop- 
ment. 

Where  the  class  of  tenants  is  not  capable  of 
handling  such  affairs  they  must,  of  course,  be 
kept  within  the  control  of  the  housing  com- 
pany. The  advantage  of  the  community  asso- 
ciation plan  is  self-evident.  It  creates  com- 
munity co-operation  and  inspires  better  individ- 
ual maintenance. 

A trained  welfare  worker  is  perhaps  the 
most  valuable  adjunct  to  the  proper  and  eco- 
nomical maintenance  of  an  industrial  village. 


Among  the  ignorant  and  foreign  classes,  educa- 
tion will  go  a long  way  in  preventing  deteriora- 
tion. Frequently  tenants  of  the  foreign  com- 
mon labor  class  are  unfamiliar  with  the  use  of 
toilet-room  facilities,  and  clog  the  drains 
through  ignorance,  resulting  in  much  damage. 
In  one  housing  development  at  Bethlehem,  Pa., 
attempts  were  made  to  remove  these  stop- 
pages by  taking  a crow-bar  and  punching  a 
hole  in  the  porcelain.  This  undoubtedly  cleared 
the  stoppage,  but  incidentally  discharged  the 
sewage  under  the  building. 

Welfare  Work  A Financial  Benefit 

Proper  welfare  conditions  exercise  a most 
beneficial  influence  on  the  problem  of  main- 
tenance. We  usually  find  that  the  higher  we  go 
in  the  various  classes  of  city  dwellers,  the  less 
is  the  damage  done  to  houses  by  tenants  or 
through  carelessness.  Bearing  in  mind  this 
inverse  proportion,  welfare  work  which  de- 
velops thrift,  a high  moral  tone,  and  good  fel- 
lowship, with  the  establishment  of  a co- 
operative spirit  between  tenant  and  owner,  will 
result  in  direct  financial  benefit. 

Good  fellowship  may  be  encouraged  by  intro- 
ducing sports  and  social  functions  under  the 
auspices  of  the  community  organization.  Thrift 
and  moral  tone  is  spread  through  the  medium 
of  contagion  by  carefully  selecting  families 
which  possess  these  qualities,  encouraging  them, 
and  locating  them  so  that  they  may  act  as 
proper  examples. 

As  before  stated,  the  welfare  worker  will  be 
a great  aid  in  reporting  needed  repairs.  Rent 
collecting  should  be  handled  carefully,  and  it 
is  always  better  to  designate  a period  from  the 
first  to  the  fifth  of  every  month  when  the 
tenant  may  come  to  a central  office  and  pay 
rent  voluntarily  rather  than  to  have  a rent 
collector  call  at  the  individual  houses. 

For  final  consideration,  we  have  the  inter- 
esting subject  of  community  farms  and  gardens 
which  should  always  be  encouraged.  If  a vil- 
lage can  be  arranged  with  allotment  gardens 
distributed  in  specially  designated  plots 
throughout  the  village,  it  has  the  advantage  of 
increasing  the  sj)ace  between  buildings,  bring- 


244 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


ing  each  individual  garden  nearer  the  owner, 
grouping  them  for  common  plowing  and  fer- 
tilizing, and  decreasing  the  size  of  back  yards. 
In  case  a tenant  does  not  wish  to  maintain  a 
garden,  he  has  not  a large  back  yard  space  to 
be  neglected  and  tilled  with  rubbish. 

Possibilities  In  Co-operation 
Gardening 

A possible  develoi)ment  of  the  village  asso- 
ciation would  lead  to  the  maintenance  of  a 
farm,  supplying  products  to  the  village,  and 
distributing  the  products  which  they  may 
raise.  This  farm  may  be  carried  on  for  educa- 
tional purposes  and  can  be  made  to  pay  its  own 
way.  4'he  farm  organization  could  plow  the 
allotment  gardens  or  even  individual  gardens 
which  should  be  arranged  so  that  boundary 
fences  do  not  interfere.  44ie  farm  organization 
could  also  manure  the  ground.  Having  a farm 
organization,  different  tenants  could  specialize 
on  special  vegetables  as  assigned  to  them.  The 
farm  organization  would  collect  the  crops  and 
kee])  proper  book  accounting  records.  The 
('anadian  Government  is  working  out  a plan 
for  rural  community  developments  to  provide 
pro])er  home  sites  for  returned  soldiers.  This 
plan  includes  farming  and  gardening  on  the 
co-o])erative  plan. 

44ie  arrangement  of  allotment  gardens  has 
greater  economic  value  then  the  same  space 
given  over  to  indi\idual  gardening,  which 
must  be  worked  b\'  hand.  Many  men  who  are 
fond  of  gardening  are  often  discouraged  by 
having  to  do  the  hea\y  work  by  hand.  With 
the  allotment  garden,  plowing,  harrowing,  and 
similar  operations  can  be  carried  out  by  ma- 
chinery, and  sprinkler  systems  ma}'  be  installed 
for  watering. 

The  question  of  maintaining  property  which 
has  been  sold  in  a \dllage  is  a very  important 
point  to  be  considered.  Certainly,  unity  can- 


not be  preserved  if  property  owned  by  private 
parties  is  allowed  to  deteriorate,  at  least  in 
those  respects  where  it  comes  in  comparison 
with  properly  maintained  property,  such  as  the 
sidewalks,  curbs,  front  lawns,  and  street  plant- 
ing. 

A Proper  Tax  for  Maintenance 

The  best  method  of  solving  this  problem, 
and  one  which  has  worked  out  most  success- 
fully at  Kensington  Gardens,  Long  Island, 
N.  Y.,  is  to  impose  a tax  in  the  way  of  a re- 
striction to  be  paid  by  every  owner  for  the 
proper  maintenance  of  streets,  sidewalks,  and 
planting.  It  was  found  at  Kensington  Gardens 
that  a few  cents  a running  foot  of  lot,  amount- 
ing ])erhaps  to  $8  or  $io  a year,  would  take 
care  of  this  for  each  property  owner. 

Architectural  unity  is  another  element  in 
making  for  the  success  of  a village.  The  best 
way  to  obtain  this  is,  of  course,  to  have  all  the 
buildings  designed  at  one  time,  either  by  one 
architect  or  by  several  in  consultation  so  as  to 
secure  unity  in  design  and  especially  in  group- 
ing. If  this  cannot  be  done,  but  the  policy  of 
the  property  owners  is  to  sell  lots  for  individuals 
to  build  their  own  houses,  then  some  form  of 
restrictions  should  be  made,  not  only  as  to  the 
position  of  the  house  on  the  lot,  the  setback 
from  the  street,  the  height  of  the  house,  and 
the  location  of  the  garage,  but  even  in  the 
material  and  color  of  the  house  itself.  At  Forest 
Hills,  Long  Island,  the  roofing  material  was 
restricted  to  one  material  and  color.  Almost 
any  material  could  be  used  in  the  house  itself, 
but  unity  of  roof  was  insisted  upon,  and  the 
result  was  most  successful  in  maintaining  the 
unity  of  the  ensemble. 

The  importance  of  maintenance  cannot  be 
o^'erestimated,  and  some  form  of  community 
maintenance  has  proved  to  be  in  every  way  the 
most  efficient  and  economical. 


WHAT  BAD  HOUSING  MEANS  TO 
THE  COMMUNITY 

By  ALBION  FELLOWS  BACON 


WITHIN  the  last  few  years  we  have 
awakened  to  the  fact  that  every  one 
of  our  states  has  a Housing  Problem. 
We  have  learned  that  our  working  people,  as 
a rule,  are  poorly  housed.  We  have  been 
startled  by  the  realization  that,  in  most  of  our 
states,  the  poor  have  apparently  no  legal  right 
to  sunlight,  air  and  water,  and  that  in  many  of 
our  cities  only  those  who  can  afford  to  pay  for 
these  commodities  get  them. 

We  have  discovered  that  what  we  have 
always  thought  were  just  old  houses,  where 
poor  folks  lived,  were  really  slums. 

We  have  seen  that  many  of  our  wealthy 
people  are  building  the  kind  of  houses  that 
eventually  make  the  worst  kind  of  slums.  We 
have  learned,  too,  that  slums  are  not  a matter 
of  size;  that  they  are  not  dependent,  even,  on 
congestion  — only  made  worse  by  it,  just  as 
disease  is  always  more  dangerous  when  con- 
gestion occurs. 

The  old  misconception  that  only  great  cities 
could  have  slums  is  passing  away.  We  have 
come  to  see  that  just  as  London  and  Berlin, 
New  York  and  Chicago,  each  has  its  distinct 
type  of  slums,  so  has  Boston,  Cincinnati, 
Louisville,  Indianapolis,  St.  Louis,  San  Fran- 
cisco, Milwaukee,  and  the  smaller  towns  of  all 
our  states.  Even  in  our  villages  we  find  types 
which  would  be  a disgrace  to  a crowded  city. 

Only  a few  of  the  states  have  recognized  the 
fact  that  they  have  a Housing  Problem.  Never- 
theless, the  same  problem  exists  in  every  state 
of  the  Union.  There  is  the  same  problem  of 
getting  enough  houses  to  shelter  all  the  people, 
as  a city’s  population  increases.  There  is  the 
same  problem  of  preventing  the  erection  of 
unfit  and  unsafe  houses;  of  letting  fit  houses 
become  unfit,  and  run  down  to  slums,  by 


deterioration  and  overcrowding.  There  is  the 
same  problem  of  already  existing  slums.  If 
there  is  any  difference  in  the  slums  of  different 
sections  of  the  country  it  is  no  more  than  the 
difference  in  language  of  those  sections  — just 
dialects,  different  pronunciations  of  poverty, 
neglect,  wretchedness. 

What  Is  Bad  Housing? 

Any  condition  of  housing  that,  in  itself,  tends 
to  impair  the  physical  or  moral  health  of  the 
tenant,  is  bad  housing. 

Any  condition  of  housing  which  is  unsafe  or 
unsanitary,  or  in  any  way  unfit  for  living  or 
home-making,  is  bad  housing. 

Any  condition  of  housing  which  is  damaging 
to  the  community,  is  bad  housing. 

These  conditions  are  to  be  found,  in  varying 
degrees,  in  all  grades  of  dwellings,  from  the 
expensive  but  unsanitary  flat,  well  kept  and 
uncrowded,  to  the  most  wretched  and  aban- 
doned hovels,  filthy  and  overcrowded,  which 
are  called  slums. 

Go  through  the  dwellings  of  the  poor,  in  the 
cities,  and  you  will  find  that  most  of  them  come 
under  all  the  definitions  of  bad  housing.  Their 
most  common  evil  is  the  lack  of  water,  drainage 
and  sewerage.  Many  houses  have  no  city  water; 
in  some  cities  there  are  cisterns,  but  these  are 
generally  uncovered  and  polluted  by  trash  as 
well  as  by  seep  water  from  the  undrained  yard 
vaults.  In  many  cases  from  eight  to  ten  families 
have  to  depend  on  one  cistern.  In  one  of  our 
cities  twenty  families  in  one  tenement  have  to 
carry  all  their  water  from  a fountain  a square 
away.  The  yards,  being  undrained,  are  sodden 
and  foul  smelling,  the  old  suds  and  dishwater 
standing  in  slimy  pools  covered  with  scum. 
Typhoid,  chills  and  fever  result  from  these 


246 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


conditions.  Many  of  the  houses  are  built  level 
with  the  street  and  have  a tiny  backyard, 
piled  up  with  ashes,  garbage  and  rubbish,  there 
being  no  rece])tacle  jirovided  for  it  and  in  most 
places  no  provision  for  its  removal.  Decaying 
outbuildings  stand  on  the  rear  of  the  yard. 
I'he  hlthy  yard  closet  and  its  accompanying 
\ ault,  generally  a cess])ool,  fills  the  air  of  the 
neighborhood  with  stifling  odors,  spreads  con- 
tagion by  means  of  swarms  of  flies,  and  seeps 
through  its  crevices  into  the  soil. 

The  house  itself  is  often  decayed  to  a degree 
of  danger  from  collapse  or  fire.  Dilapidation  is 
the  rule,  although  this  is  not  considered  one  of 
the  cardinal  evils.  But  an  old  house  is  like  an 
old  sinner  — so  much  meaner  the  older  it  gets. 
Wdth  each  generation  of  tenants  come  succes- 
sive strata  of  dirt,  and  countless  generations  of 
germs  that  gather  in  the  loose  cracks  of  the 
woodwork  and  the  broken  plastering.  The 
stairways  are  rickety  and  unsafe.  Many  of  the 
houses  are  low  and  damp,  often  built  flat  on  the 
ground,  so  that  mud  from  the  yard  washes  over 
the  floor  when  it  rains.  Few  of  the  houses  are 
properly  ventilated.  Even  in  ^dllages  we  find 
rooms  without  windows.  In  some  towns  the 
poor  live  over  warehouses  and  stores,  the 
middle  room  (used  for  sleeping)  being  totally 
dark  and  unventilated.  Many  of  the  new 
tenements  have  windowless  rooms.  Cellars  are 
unknown  in  some  towns,  but  in  others  are 
sometimes  used  for  dwellings,  and  are  generally 
damp  and  filth}-. 

'fhe  rear  tenement,  on  the  alle}-,  is  one  of  the 
worst  evils,  for  the  reason  that  stables  and 
x'aults  are  also  on  the  alleys,  the  latter  often 
being  full  of  filthy  refuse.  In  some  of  these 
dwellings  old  cess])ools  are  under  the  floor  of 
the  li\ing  room.  Garbage  barrels,  against  the 
windows,  require  them  to  be  closed.  Some 
families  share  a stable  with  horses  or  mules. 
In  one  city,  where  hundreds  of  rear  tenements 
have  been  built  recently,  they  are  crowded 
against  the  yard  closets  of  the  front  building. 
These  being  in  bad  condition,  the  doors  and 
windows  of  the  rear  tenement  have  to  be  kept 
closed.  In  these  places  also  there  are  no  sewer 
connections  and  the  yard  sinks  are  always 


overflowing.  In  another  town,  houses  of  five 
rooms,  or  even  less,  have  from  ten  to  twenty 
boarders  (a  day  shift  and  a night  shift  of  work- 
men), often  among  them  a consumptive.  Here 
it  is  common  to  find  holes  dug  in  the  ground  for 
garbage. 

The  scarcity  of  good  houses  makes  it  neces- 
sary that  many  workingmen’s  families,  whom 
manufacturing  calls  to  our  cities,  shall  take  any 
house  they  can  find.  This  very  often  brings 
them  into  a slum  neighborhood  and  sometimes 
into  the  same  tenement  with  families  whose 
habits  are  a menace  to  their  own  family.  The 
normal  family,  put  into  a subnormal  environ- 
ment, sinks  to  the  subnormal,  physically  and 
morally.  Too  often  the  course  is  short  and 
direct  — illness  or  death  of  bread  winner,  debt, 
dependency,  delinquenc}u 

What  Baci  Housing  Means  to  the 
Tenant 

The  i)h}'sical  consequences  of  bad  housing  are 
the  ones  most  plainly  seen.  There  are  always 
cases  of  sickness  in  the  tenements.  One  won- 
ders, breathing  that  foul  air,  how  any  one  can 
be  well  in  such  places.  In  the  dark,  damp  rooms 
of  the  poor  germs  of  disease  live  and  multiply, 
lacking  air  and  sunlight  to  destroy  them. 
Tuberculosis  is  fearfully  prevalent  for  this 
reason.  Rheumatism  and  colds,  with  all  their 
train  of  troubles,  are  caused  by  the  dampness 
of  the  old  houses,  flat  on  the  ground.  T}q3hoid, 
chills  and  fever  are  caused  by  impure  con- 
taminated water  and  lack  of  drainage. 

Overcrowding  brings  serious  physical  re- 
sults. These  have  been  clearly  demonstrated 
in  a startling  way  by  a “congestion  chart,” 
which  shows  that  children  reared  in  a one- 
room  dwelling  are  smaller  than  children  of  the 
same  age  and  sex  reared  in  a two  or  three-room 
dwelling,  the  weight  and  height  both  increasing 
with  each  added  room.  Professor  Patten  declares 
that;  “It  is  the  environment  of  the  poor  that 
inflates  the  death  rate,  and  dwarfs  them  below 
the  stature  of  a man.”  IMiss  Harriet  Fulmer, 
superintendent  of  the  Visiting  Nurses’  Asso- 
ciation of  Cliicago,  says:  “Two-thirds  of  the 
delinquent  children  come  from  homes  where 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


247 


dirty,  illy  ventilated  rooms  predominate;  two- 
thirds  of  the  physically  ill  children  from  the 
same;  one-third  of  the  shiftless  mothers  from 
the  same;  two-thirds  of  the  deserting  fathers 
from  the  same.  In  a study  of  fifty  backward 
children  in  an  ungraded  school  of  a large  city, 
forty-three  of  these  children  occupied  homes 
that  it  should  have  been  the  business  of  the 
state  to  see  they  did  not  exist.” 

Horsfall  notes  the  deterioration  of  the  English 
townspeople,  under  the  influence  of  bad  hous- 
ing, and  says  that:  “Out  of  ii,ooo  men  from 
Manchester,  only  i,ooo  were  physically  fit  to 
enter  the  army,”  and  quotes  a German  author, 
who  says  that:  “The  men  of  Manchester  are  a 
degenerate  race.”  Hunter  lays  great  stress  on 
sanitary  housing  as  one  thing  necessary  to  keep 
a man  in  good  working  condition.  One  English 
author  boldly  says:  “Poverty  is  largely  due  to 
bad  housing.  Put  an  applicant  for  relief  under 
better  housing  conditions  and  his  health  will  in 
most  cases  much  improve,  enabling  him  to 
earn  more  and  taking  him  off  the  hands  of  the 
charitable.” 

Those  who  deal  with  the  problems  of  charity 
can  testify  that  this  is  true. 

When  a family  of  ten,  living  in  three  rooms, 
takes  in  boarders,  modesty  and  morality  are 
apt  to  be  crowded  out.  Even  with  only  one 
room  to  a family  boarders  are  sometimes  taken 
and  visitors  are  frequent.  At  the  St.  Louis 
National  Charities  Conference,  Jane  Addams 
spoke  on  “Bad  Housing  as  a Social  Deterrent.” 
She  pointed  out  the  fact  that  if  a house  were  so 
crowded  or  so  uninviting  that  a girl  had  no  fit 
place  to  invite  her  men  friends,  she  met  them 
on  the  streets  or  at  the  dance  halls.  It  is  no 
wonder  that  boys  and  men  — and  girls  and 
women  too  — fly  from  their  dreary  homes  after 
a day  of  toil  in  the  grimy  shops.  Their  gray 
lives  cry  out  against  the  gray  walls  for  color 
and  brightness,  and  they  go  out  into  the  brilliant 
streets  or  to  the  inviting  saloons  to  find  cheer. 

What  Bad  Housing  Means  to  the 
Community 

Bad  housing  affects  the  entire  community, 
touching  the  individual,  the  family,  the  neigh- 


borhood, and  corrupting  the  social  and  civic 
life  of  the  whole  city.  It  is  the  cancer  that  sends 
its  poison  to  the  finger  tips  of  the  social  body. 
It  is  the  rotten  foundation  upon  which  the  civic 
temple  unsafely  rests.  The  direct  effects  of  bad 
housing  upon  the  tenant  bring  a large  part  of 
the  community  under  its  shadow.  It  is  the 
effect  upon  the  individuals  who  are  not  tenants 
but  neighbors,  or  citizens  of  the  same  town, 
that  we  wish  to  show. 

The  effect  of  the  slum  is  apparent  in  its  own 
neighborhood.  Slums  being  often  scattered, 
the  poison  is  scattered  in  so  many  districts. 
We  may  find  a row  of  the  worst  kind  of  houses 
at  the  rear  of  a fine  residence  block,  or  a single 
wretched  tenement  set  among  neat  and  well- 
built  houses.  In  the  factory  district  the  better 
class  of  workmen’s  cottages  have  squalid  shacks 
or  tenements  interspersed  among  them,  so  that 
they  are  beset  on  all  sides  with  the  annoying 
sights  and  sounds  and  the  unwholesome  condi- 
tions of  filth,  with  the  disease-spreading  swarms 
of  flies  which  the  thrifty  workingman’s  wife 
would  banish  from  her  own  neat  premises. 
The  loathsome  cesspools  and  decaying  garbage 
of  one  neglected  house  are  enough  to  poison  the 
air  and  spread  contagion  to  a whole  neighbor- 
hood. In  the  same  way  may  moral  contagion  be 
spread  from  one  center  of  vice. 

The  neighborhood  is  interested  directly  in 
the  buildings  erected  in  a city,  on  account  of 
their  influence  on  the  ventilation  of  the  blocks 
and  the  streets.  On  sultry  July  nights,  when  the 
heavy  odors  of  the  vaults  and  foul  alleys  per- 
vade the  block,  the  tall  buildings,  covering  the 
entire  corner  lots,  shut  off  all  the  air  supply  from 
the  tenants  of  the  inner  lots,  who  are  in  a posi- 
tion to  appreciate  the  need  of  “block  ventila- 
tion.” The  injury  done  by  crowding  tall  build- 
ings together  goes  still  farther  and  poisons  the 
arteries  of  the  whole  city.  Notice  how  the  air, 
so  fresh  and  pure  in  the  suburbs,  where  houses 
are  scattered,  grows  denser,  fouler  and  more 
smoke-laden,  block  by  block,  till,  where  tall, 
close  rows  of  buildings  line  both  sides  of  the 
streets,  the  air  is  heavy  and  stale.  In  some  dis- 
tricts the  odor  of  leather,  fish,  fruit  or  beer 
seems  never  to  be  changed  unless  a gale  blows. 


248 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


Dead,  vault-like  air  issues  from  the  doors  of 
the  business  houses.  Yet  here  an  army  of 
employees  spend  their  working  hours,  the  em- 
ployers doomed  to  the  same  i)rison-like  air. 
Overhead,  in  the  offices,  our  lawyers,  archi- 
tects and  men  of  all  i)rofessions  breathe  the  un- 
wholesome fumes  of  the  street.  In  other  rear 
or  U])stairs  rooms,  families  live,  work,  sleej). 
Children  play  in  the  pent  rooms,  babies  wail 
through  miserable  summers,  when  the  heat 
rises  from  the  shed  roofs  and  walls,  and  no  air 
seems  to  enter  at  the  window,  because  the  tall 
rows  of  buildings  prevent  the  ventilation  of  the 
street  itself. 

The  influence  of  the  slum  on  civic  life  is  a 
sadly  familiar  story.  “You  can’t  let  people  live 
like  pigs  and  expect  them  to  make  good  citi- 
zens,’’ says  Jacob  Riis.  Neither  can  you  expect 
them  to  make  good  public  officials.  The  slime 
of  the  gutter  is  too  often  on  our  city  politics, 
and  the  dead  weight  of  the  slum  hangs  about 
the  neck  of  all  civic  ])rogress. 

What  Bad  Housing  Means  to  the 
State 

“The  two  greatest  assets  of  a nation  are  the 
land  and  the  peo])le.”  Other  countries,  realizing 
this,  protect  both  land  and  people  by  their 
housing  regulations.  They  find  that  “land 
sweating”  does  not  pay,  neither  does  “the 
practice  of  crowding  the  poor  onto  dear  land 
and  leaving  the  cheap  land  vacant.”  Prevent- 
ing this,  they  save  money  as  well  as  lives. 

The  appropriations  required  by  tenement 
commissions,  when  the  evil  is  allowed  to  grow 
so  that  a large  corps  is  required  to  handle  it, 
are  a small  part  of  the  expense  of  slums.  When 
it  becomes  necessary,  in  order  to  sax^e  human 
lives,  to  tear  out  the  buildings  of  a whole  slum 
area,  invohdng  millions  of  dollars,  the  public 
begins  to  realize  the  costliness  of  slums. 

To  determine  what  bad  housing  means  to  the 
State  we  must  remember  what  it  means  to  the 
citizen  and  the  community.  Then  we  must 
consider  that  “the  slum  is  the  enemy  of  the 
home,”  and  “the  home  is  the  key  to  good 
citizenship.”  Crime  and  disease,  defectiveness, 
delinquency  and  dependency,  are  traced  to  the 


slum.  The  cost  of  these  to  the  State  has  often 
been  em])hasized.  The  expensive  processes  of 
the  law  and  the  maintenance  of  costly  institu- 
tions are  both  included  in  the  estimate.  This 
does  not  include,  however,  the  loss  of  citizens, 
by  death  from  disease  or  crime.  Many  of  these 
are  adults  — workers,  producers,  part  of  the 
State’s  industrial  capital.  The  inefficiency  of 
the  workingman,  from  sickness,  reducing  his 
earning  power  and  causing  the  dependency  of 
his  family,  must  also  be  counted.  Now,  sum  it 
all  up  and  see  what  is  the  loss  to  the  State  on 
account  of  bad  housing. 

There  is  a loss  of  property^  a loss  in  property 
values,  a loss  in  the  expense  of  crime  and  de- 
pendency, a loss  in  the  expense  of  disease  and  in 
the  death  of  citizens,  a loss  in  the  efficiency  of 
the  workingman,  a loss  in  homes,  a loss  in  citizen- 
ship. 

Who  Is  Responsible  for  These 
Conditions? 

The  citizen,  the  architect  or  builder,  and  the 
landlord  are  responsible  for  these  conditions. 
This  does  not  include  the  models  of  each  class; 
only  those  who  build  or  rent  or  allow  objection- 
able buildings. 

The  responsibility  of  the  landlord  is  a new 
thought  in  this  part  of  the  country.  We  are 
just  beginning  to  understand  that  “a  man  has 
just  as  much  right  to  kill  another  man  in  the 
street  with  an  axe  as  he  has  to  kill  him  with  a 
house.”  We  are  learning  that  to  collect  rent 
from  our  old  death-traps  of  tenements  is  really 
to  take  blood  money.  It  has  been  the  custom  to 
blame  the  poor  for  their  surroundings,  on  the 
ground  that  they  are  shiftless  and  dirty.  But 
how  can  they  be  clean  without  water  or  drains, 
or  any  provision  for  ashes  or  garbage?  How 
much  bathing  or  washing  would  any  of  us  do  if 
we  had  to  bring  every  drop  of  water  we  used 
from  a fountain  two  squares  away,  carry  it  up 
two  flights  of  stairs,  heat  it  on  a broken  stove, 
and  bathe  in  a wash  basin? 

YY  cannot  blame  the  architects  of  today  for 
the  mistakes  in  our  old  houses.  They  were  the 
blunders  of  the  old  builders,  whose  victims  fill 
our  grave-yards.  We  are  tempted  to  smile 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


249 


sometimes  as  we  explore  their  musty  rooms  and 
note  the  elaborate  pains  with  which  they 
avoided  proper  ventilation,  the  ingenuity  they 
displayed  in  making  houses  inconvenient  and 
uncomfortable,  and  their  lofty  disregard  for 
sanitation.  But  alas,  while  it  would  enrich 
comedy,  it  is  engrossed  by  tragedy.  The  archi- 
tect of  this  day  knows  better  than  to  make  such 
mistakes.  He  knows  that  every  room  which 
human  beings  occupy  must  be  supplied  with 
sunlight  and  air.  If  he  deliberately  plans  the 
administering  of  fatal  doses  of  carbonic  acid 
gas,  it  is  as  bad  as  it  w'ould  be  for  a doctor  to 
deliberately  prescribe  fatal  doses  of  laudanum. 
The  fee  involved,  the  “convenience”  or  greed 
of  his  client,  does  not  lessen  one  whit  the  re- 
sponsibility of  the  architect. 

The  responsibility  of  the  landlord  for  the 
condition  of  the  dwellings  he  rents  is  recognized 
by  the  laws  of  England  and  Europe,  as  well  as 
by  all  the  tenement  laws  of  our  country. 

It  is  fully  recognized  in  the  case  of  the  higher 
class  of  tenants,  who  demand  necessary  repairs 
and  the  correction  of  unsanitary  conditions. 
But  in  too  many  cases  where  the  lowest  class 
of  houses  are  rented  the  responsibility  of  the 
landlord  is  evaded,  and  advantage  is  taken  of 
the  tenant’s  ignorance  of  the  laws  protecting 
him.  “Don’t  send  the  health  officer,  because 
we’ll  get  turned  right  out  in  the  street  if  he 
comes  and  makes  trouble,”  has  been  the  appeal 
of  tenants  whose  cisterns  were  polluted,  and 
whose  cellars  were  half  full  of  water. 

Yet  the  owners  of  these  houses  know  very 
well  what  is  necessary  for  the  sanitation  of  a 
dwelling,  as  is  shown  by  their  careful  provision 
for  their  own  homes. 

The  Housing  Problem  takes  in  not  only  the 
“multiple  dwelling,”  or  tenement,  but  the  single 
or  detached  dwelling,  in  which  only  one  family 
lives.  Hundreds  of  our  poor  live  in  wretched 
shacks  or  hovels.  Thousands  of  families  of  self- 
respecting  workingmen  live  in  dingy,  dreary 
blocks  or  rows  of  houses,  flimsy  and  cheaply 
made,  like  pens  or  boxes,  with  no  thought  of 
comfort,  convenience  or  even  sanitation.  Such 
dwellings  constitute  a very  serious  part  of  the 
housing  problem. 


The  responsibility  of  the  citizen  lays  upon 
him  the  obligation  to  know  the  conditions  of 
his  own  community,  and  to  do  all  in  his  power 
to  prevent  the  evils  that  threaten  his  home,  his 
community,  his  State.  The  majority  of  the 
people  are  in  utter  ignorance  of  the  slums  of 
their  own  town  and  are  not  even  aware  that 
they  exist.  This  was  repeatedly  shown  during 
an  investigation  into  the  housing  conditions  of 
one  of  our  States.  Even  those  who  take  part 
in  charity  work,  as  a rule,  do  not  visit  the  homes 
of  the  poor,  but  leave  that  to  be  done  by  the 
Charities  Secretary.  If  our  citizens  would  only 
learn  the  truth  about  slum  conditions,  they 
would  not  tolerate  their  existence. 

“iVo  housing  evils  are  necessary;  none  need  be 
tolerated.  Where  they  exist  they  are  always  a re- 
action upon  the  intelligence,  right-mindedness 
and  moral  tone  of  the  community.'’ 

Not  Tenements,  But  Homes! 

In  this  great  country  we  have  vast  reaches 
of  primeval  forest,  unmeasured  miles  of  moun- 
tains, plains  and  prairies,  where  only  an  occa- 
sional cabin  stands.  We  have  unbuilt  wastes 
where  the  hermit  has  no  neighbor.  Unpeopled 
hills  stand  lonely,  overlooking  the  straggling 
hamlets  of  the  wide  valleys.  We  have  room  for 
every  one,  room  and  to  spare. 

There  is  not  a state  in  the  Union,  east  or  west, 
which  has  not  land  conditions  that  would 
afford  plenty  of  space,  without  crowding,  to 
every  one  of  its  town  dwellers.  In  the  suburbs 
of  our  cities  there  is  room  for  every  working 
man  to  have  his  house  and  garden,  and  the 
remaining  land  would  be  all  the  more  valuable. 

Ruskin  laments  that  in  six  thousand  years  of 
building  we  have  not  yet  learned  how  to  house 
our  poor. 

x\nd  what  is  the  glory  of  our  architecture,  if 
the  poor  must  hide  in  dens  and  holes? 

What  is  our  boast  of  greatness  and  strength, 
if  the  weakest  are  not  cared  for? 

What  is  our  pride  in  mental  achievement,  if 
the  thought  of  the  peojjle  tolerates  filth  and 
degradation? 

What  is  our  advantage  in  wealth  if  po\'erty 
and  crime  threaten  our  treasuries? 


250 


HOMES  FOR  WORKMEN 


STANDARD  REFERENCE  WORKS 
ON  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

Government  Am  to  Home  Owning  and  Housing  of  Working  People  in  Foreign 
Countries.  U.  S.  Department  of  Labor.  Publication  No.  158.  450  pages;  gratis.  A 
comprehensive  summing  up  of  housing  practice  throughout  the  world.  1915. 

Pr.vctical  Housing.  By  J.  S.  Nettle] old.  Garden  City  Press,  Letchworth,  England,  1908. 

IS  paper;  2s  cloth. 

Garden  Cities  of  Tomorrow.  By  Ehenezer  Howard.  London,  1912.  Swan,  Sonnenschein 
& Co.,  Paternoster  Scj. 

Garden  Suburbs,  Villages  .\nd  Homes.  By  Henry  Viinan  and  Others.  Garden  City  Press, 
Letchworth,  Eng.  9d. 

A Modern  Indltstri.vl  Suburb  (Morg.tn  Park)  by  Lcijnr  Magnusson.  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Labor,  1918.  Gratis. 

The  Pioneer  Co-Partnership  Suburb.  Garden  City  Press,  Letchworth,  Eng. 

Co-Partnership  in  Housing.  By  E.  B.  London,  igoy.  Co-Partnership  Publishing  Co., 
Ltd. 

Note. — There  are  numerous  publications  by  the  Co-Partnership  Publishing  Company,  Ltd.,  London,  all  of 
which  give  valuable  information  growing  out  of  the  co-partnership  experiments  which  have  been  made  in  England. 

A full  list  can  be  obtained  from  the  publishers.  Two  of  the  more  important  ones  are:  The  Pioneer  Co-Partnership 
Suburb,  Ealings  Tenants,  Ltd.;  Co-Partnership  in  ITousing  in  Town  and  Country. 

Co-Partnership  Housing  in  Lngl.vnd.  By  Herbert  S.  Swan.  Journal  of  the  American 
Institute  of  Architects,  April,  1918. 

Rural  Planning  and  Development.  By  Thomas  Adams.  A study  of  Rural  Conditions 
and  Problems  in  Canada.  Ottawa,  1917.  Commission  of  Conservation. 

Report  of  the  Eighth  Annltal  Meeting,  Commission  of  Conservation,  Canada,  The 
Federated  Press,  Ltd,,  Montreal. 

The  Housing  Problem  in  Peace  and  in  War.  Washington,  1918,  By  Charles  Harris 
Whilaker.  Frederiek  L.  Aekerman.  Richard  S.  Childs.  Edith  Elmer  Wood.  $2.25  postpaid, 

S.^TELLiTE  Cities,  Bv  Graham  Romeyn  Taylor,  Associate  Editor  of  the  Survey,  New 
York,  1915.  D.  Appleton  & Co,  Si. 50.  , 


COLLATERAL  READING 

The  N.ttion.tl  Being.  By  H.  E.  [George  Edward  Russell)  London,  1917. 
Ide.ts  .tt  W.A.R,  London,  1918.  By  Patrick  Geddes  and  1 ictor  Branjord. 
Towards  Indltstrial  Lreedom.  London,  1917.  By  Edward  Carpenter. 
DEM0CR.4CY  After  the  W.tr,  London,  1918.  By  J.  A.  Hobson. 

From  the  Human  End.  By  L.  P.  Jacks,  London,  1917. 


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